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Alfred Wegener Creator of the Continental Drift Theory
1st Edition Lisa Yount Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Lisa Yount
ISBN(s): 9781438116730, 143811673X
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 5.56 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
 Alfred
Wegener
 Alfred
Wegener
Creator of the Continental Drift Theory

LisA Yount
Alfred Wegener: Creator of the Continental drift Theory

Copyright © 2009 by Lisa Yount

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by
any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the
publisher. For information contact:

Chelsea House
An imprint of Infobase Publishing
132 West 31st Street
New York NY 10001

library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data

Yount, Lisa.
Alfred Wegener : creator of the continental drift theory / Lisa Yount.
p. cm.—(Makers of modern science)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-6174-7
ISBN-10: 0-8160-6174-2
1. Wegener, Alfred, 1880–1930. 2. Geologists—German—Biography. 3. Earth
scientists—Germany—Biography. 4. Continental drift. 5. Physical geography.
I. Title. II. Series.
QE22.W26Y68 2009
550.92—dc22 2008025489

Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk
quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call
our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755.

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Text design by Kerry Casey

Cover design by Salvatore Luongo
Illustrations by Sholto Ainslie
Photo research by Suzanne M. Tibor

Printed in the United States of America

Bang KT 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

 to Kat,
who knows far too much about
earthquakes and tectonic shifts

$
Contents
Preface x
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction xiv

1 Changing Views of the Earth

Earth’s Early Days
1
2
Competing Theories 4
Catastrophes or Steady Change? 7
Charles Lyell (1797–1875):
Founder of Uniformitarianism 8
Progressivism 10
Floating in a Hidden Sea 12
The Age of the Earth 16
Earth Science in Turmoil 18

2 Weather Pioneer
An Active Youth
20
20
Meteorology: The Science of Weather 22
Arctic Explorer 24
Popular Teacher and Writer 27
Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940): Pioneer Climatologist 30
A Bizarre Idea 31
Love and War 35

3 Continental Drift
A Challenge to Geology
38
39
Geologic Time 40
Ancient Continents 41
Another “Continental Drift” Theory 43
 A Moving Island 45
Two Layers of Crust 46
Matching Rocks 48
Separated Twins 50
Fossil Climates and Wandering Poles 53
The Motors That Drive the Continents 55

4 “Utter, Damned Rot”

Early Reactions to Drift
58
60
Rejection in America 62
Harsh Criticisms 63
Powerful Feelings 64
Different Approaches to Science 66
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 66
Starting All Over 68

5 Death on the Ice

Planning an Expedition
70
71
A Frustrating Start 73
Setting up Mid-Ice 75
International Polar Year: A Modern Polar Adventure 78
Visiting Mid-Ice 79
Final Journey 81
A Long Winter 83
A Memorial to Wegener: The Alfred Wegener Institute 84
Grim Discovery 85

6 Rumblings of Change
New Mechanisms for Drift
89
90
Support from South Africa 92
Comic Relief 94
Dragging Gravity 95
Artificial Earthquakes 96
War Spurs Marine Science 97
Scripps, Woods Hole, and Lamont:
Three Pioneering Institutions 98
 The Wound That Never Heals 99
Magnetic Moments 103
7
7 The Plate Tectonics Revolution
Seafloor Spreading
106
107
Linking Spreading to Magnetic Changes 109
Converging Lines of Evidence 113
Eltanin 19: “Too Perfect” 114
Shaking up Geology 116
Mathematical Support 118
A New Theory of Earth Movement 119
Plate Tectonics Today 123

Conclusion: Reaching into the Future 127

Chronology 130
Glossary 137
Further Resources 142
Index 150
PrefaCe

S cience is, above all, a great human adventure. It is the process of

exploring what Albert Einstein called the “magnificent structure”
of nature using observation, experience, and logic. Science com-
prises the best methods known to humankind for finding reliable
answers about the unknown. With these tools, scientists probe the
great mysteries of the universe—from black holes and star nurseries
to deep-sea hydrothermal vents (and extremophile organisms that
survive high temperatures to live in them); from faraway galaxies to
subatomic particles such as quarks and antiquarks; from signs of life
on other worlds to microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses here
on Earth; from how a vaccine works to protect a child from disease to
the DNA, genes, and enzymes that control traits and processes from
the color of a boy’s hair to how he metabolizes sugar.
Some people think that science is rigid and static, a dusty, musty
set of facts and statistics to memorize for a test and then forget.
Some think of science as antihuman—devoid of poetry, art, and a
sense of mystery. However, science is based on a sense of wonder
and is all about exploring the mysteries of life and our planet and the
vastness of the universe. Science offers methods for testing and rea-
soning that help keep us honest with ourselves. As physicist Richard
Feynman once said, science is above all a way to keep from fooling
yourself—or letting nature (or others) fool you. Nothing could be
more growth-oriented or more human. Science evolves continually.
New bits of knowledge and fresh discoveries endlessly shed light and
open perspectives. As a result, science is constantly undergoing revo-
lutions—ever refocusing what scientists have explored before into
fresh, new understanding. Scientists like to say science is self-cor-
recting. That is, science is fallible, and scientists can be wrong. It is
easy to fool yourself, and it is easy to be fooled by others, but because


 Preface i

new facts are constantly flowing in, scientists are continually refining
their work to account for as many facts as possible. So science can
make mistakes, but it also can correct itself.
Sometimes, as medical scientist Jonas Salk liked to point out,
good science thrives when scientists ask the right question about
what they observe. “What people think of as the moment of discov-
ery is really the discovery of the question,” he once remarked.
There is no one, step-by-step “scientific method” that all scien-
tists use. However, science requires the use of methods that are sys-
tematic, logical, and empirical (based on objective observation and
experience). The goal of science is to explore and understand how
nature works—what causes the patterns, the shapes, the colors, the
textures, the consistency, the mass, and all the other characteristics
of the natural universe that we see.
What is it like to be a scientist? Many people think of stereotypes
of the scientist trapped in cold logic or the cartoonlike “mad” scien-
tists. In general, these portrayals are more imagination than truth.
Scientists use their brains. They are exceptionally good at logic and
critical thinking. This is where the generalizations stop. Although
science follows strict rules, it is often guided by the many styles and
personalities of the scientists themselves, who have distinct individu-
ality, personality, and style. What better way to explore what science
is all about than through the experiences of great scientists?
Each volume of the Makers of Modern Science series presents the
life and work of a prominent scientist whose outstanding contribu-
tions have garnered the respect and recognition of the world. These
men and women were all great scientists, but they differed in many
ways. Their approaches to the use of science were different: Niels
Bohr was an atomic theorist whose strengths lay in patterns, ideas,
and conceptualization, while Wernher von Braun was a hands-on
scientist/engineer who led the team that built the giant rocket used by
Apollo astronauts to reach the Moon. Some’s genius was sparked by
solitary contemplation—geneticist Barbara McClintock worked alone
in fields of maize and sometimes spoke to no one all day long. Others
worked as members of large, coordinated teams. Oceanographer
Robert Ballard organized oceangoing ship crews on submersible
ii Alfred Wegener

expeditions to the ocean floor; biologist Jonas Salk established the

Salk Institute to help scientists in different fields collaborate more
freely and study the human body through the interrelationships of
their differing knowledge and approaches. Their personal styles also
differed: biologist Rita Levi-Montalcini enjoyed wearing chic dresses
and makeup; McClintock was sunburned and wore baggy denim
jeans and an oversized shirt; nuclear physicist Richard Feynman was
a practical joker and an energetic bongo drummer.
The scientists chosen represent a spectrum of disciplines and a
diversity of approaches to science as well as lifestyles. Each biogra-
phy explores the scientist’s younger years along with education and
growth as a scientist; the experiences, research, and contributions of
the maturing scientist; and the course of the path to recognition. Each
volume also explores the nature of science and its unique usefulness
for studying the universe and contains sidebars covering related facts
or profiles of interest, introductory coverage of the scientist’s field,
line illustrations and photographs, a time line, a glossary of related
scientific terms, and a list of further resources including books, Web
sites, periodicals, and associations.
The volumes in the Makers of Modern Science series offer a
factual look at the lives and exciting contributions of the profiled
scientists in the hope that readers will see science as a uniquely
human quest to understand the universe and that some readers may
be inspired to follow in the footsteps of these great scientists.
aCknowledgments

I would like to thank Frank K. Darmstadt for his help and suggestions,
Suzie Tibor for her hard work in rounding up the photographs, my
cats for keeping me company (helpfully or otherwise), and, as always,
my husband, Harry Henderson, for—well—everything.

iii
IntroduCtIon

E verything changes. As time passes, Earth and everything on it

change. Living things are born and die; species develop, flour-
ish for a while, then evolve into new species or become extinct. The
atmosphere, the sea, and even the solid rock of the planet’s crust
change as well. The floor of a shallow sea is pushed up to become a
mountaintop. Mountains are worn down by wind and water and, in
time, may sink beneath the waves.
Science changes as well. Scientists observe details of the world
around them and make guesses about why things are the way they
are and how they might alter in the future. The researchers test these
ideas by making further observations or conducting experiments.
The results of the tests may confirm the original thoughts or lead to
new ones.
In science, as in any other area of human activity, opinions about
people and ideas also change over time. Some scientists are hailed
as geniuses at first, only to be forgotten later. Others’ theories are
rejected by their peers but may be brought back to life when new
evidence to support them is discovered. Sometimes these positive or
negative changes happen within a scientist’s lifetime, but, in other
cases, researchers’ reputations are altered long after their deaths.

A Story of Change
The story of Alfred Wegener and his theory of continental drift is,
above all, a tale of change. Wegener’s idea, first proposed early in
the 20th century, provided a revolutionary picture of the way Earth’s
surface had changed. Wegener believed that continents had moved
together and split apart during the eons of the geologic past, sailing
like vast icebergs through a sea of semiliquid rock. Their motion had

iv
 Introduction v

produced new mountains and islands and opened yawning gaps that
filled with ocean water.
Wegener’s life was full of change as well. The son of a minister,
he chose to become a scientist. He was a pioneer in meteorology, the
science that studies Earth’s atmosphere and weather, yet a map that
reminded him of a jigsaw puzzle led him to venture into geology—a
field in which he had no training or experience. He spent most of
his time in university towns of Germany and Austria, but he left
that quiet existence again and again to explore the white waste of
Greenland, where in fact he died.
Finally, the story of continental drift is a story of changes in
scientific thinking. During Alfred Wegener’s lifetime, fellow scien-
tists respected him as a meteorologist and Arctic explorer, but they
ignored or made fun of his theory of moving continents because it
was so different from the ideas that most geologists accepted. The
drift theory was almost forgotten for three decades after Wegener’s
death in 1930, and Wegener himself was dismissed as a teller of
what one scientific critic called “fairy tales.” In the 1960s, however, a
cascade of new discoveries about the seafloor led several scientists to
resurrect Wegener’s ideas and modify them into a new theory called
plate tectonics.
Unlike continental drift, plate tectonics had such powerful evi-
dence in its favor that almost all Earth scientists accepted it within a
few years. It became part of a new view of Earth as a dynamic, ever-
changing system—a “living, mobile thing,” as John Tuzo Wilson, one
of the architects of the new outlook, said in 1968. Historians writing
about this radical change in geology hailed Alfred Wegener, the
creator of the tectonics theory’s ancestor, as the equivalent of Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), whose revolutionary
picture of the solar system was not accepted in his own time but led
to major astronomical discoveries in later eras.

Revolution in Earth Science

In Great Geological Controversies, science historian Anthony Hallam
called the evolution of geological ideas from continental drift to plate
Other documents randomly have
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 Artificial Intelligence - Student Handbook
Third 2025 - University

Prepared by: Lecturer Garcia

Date: August 12, 2025

Unit 1: Comparative analysis and synthesis

Learning Objective 1: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 5: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 2: Study tips and learning strategies
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 14: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 19: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Methodology 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
Example 20: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 22: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 23: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 26: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 4: Practical applications and examples
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 36: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 39: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 5: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 41: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 42: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 45: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Conclusion 6: Interdisciplinary approaches
Practice Problem 50: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 52: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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