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 C #
Language Specification
Version 3.0

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved.

Please send corrections, comments, and other feedback to [email protected]
Notice
© 1999-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Microsoft, Windows, Visual Basic, Visual C#, and Visual C++ are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft
Corporation in the U.S.A. and/or other countries/regions.
Other product and company names mentioned herein may be the trademarks of their respective owners.

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved.

 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Hello world .............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Program structure ..................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Types and variables .................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Expressions .............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.5 Statements................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.6 Classes and objects................................................................................................................................. 12
1.6.1 Members ......................................................................................................................................... 12
1.6.2 Accessibility .................................................................................................................................... 13
1.6.3 Type parameters .............................................................................................................................. 13
1.6.4 Base classes ..................................................................................................................................... 14
1.6.5 Fields............................................................................................................................................... 14
1.6.6 Methods........................................................................................................................................... 15
1.6.6.1 Parameters................................................................................................................................. 15
1.6.6.2 Method body and local variables ............................................................................................... 16
1.6.6.3 Static and instance methods ....................................................................................................... 17
1.6.6.4 Virtual, override, and abstract methods ...................................................................................... 18
1.6.6.5 Method overloading .................................................................................................................. 20
1.6.7 Other function members................................................................................................................... 21
1.6.7.1 Constructors .............................................................................................................................. 22
1.6.7.2 Properties .................................................................................................................................. 23
1.6.7.3 Indexers .................................................................................................................................... 23
1.6.7.4 Events ....................................................................................................................................... 24
1.6.7.5 Operators................................................................................................................................... 24
1.6.7.6 Destructors ................................................................................................................................ 25
1.7 Structs .................................................................................................................................................... 25
1.8 Arrays .................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.9 Interfaces ............................................................................................................................................... 27
1.10 Enums .................................................................................................................................................. 29
1.11 Delegates ............................................................................................................................................. 30
1.12 Attributes ............................................................................................................................................. 31
2. Lexical structure ........................................................................................................................................ 33
2.1 Programs................................................................................................................................................ 33
2.2 Grammars .............................................................................................................................................. 33
2.2.1 Grammar notation ............................................................................................................................ 33
2.2.2 Lexical grammar .............................................................................................................................. 34
2.2.3 Syntactic grammar ........................................................................................................................... 34
2.3 Lexical analysis...................................................................................................................................... 34
2.3.1 Line terminators............................................................................................................................... 35
2.3.2 Comments ....................................................................................................................................... 35
2.3.3 White space ..................................................................................................................................... 37
2.4 Tokens ................................................................................................................................................... 37
2.4.1 Unicode character escape sequences ................................................................................................ 37
2.4.2 Identifiers ........................................................................................................................................ 38
2.4.3 Keywords ........................................................................................................................................ 40
2.4.4 Literals ............................................................................................................................................ 40
2.4.4.1 Boolean literals ......................................................................................................................... 40
2.4.4.2 Integer literals ........................................................................................................................... 40

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C# LANGUAGE SPECIFICATION

2.4.4.3 Real literals ............................................................................................................................... 42

2.4.4.4 Character literals ....................................................................................................................... 42
2.4.4.5 String literals ............................................................................................................................. 43
2.4.4.6 The null literal ........................................................................................................................... 45
2.4.5 Operators and punctuators................................................................................................................ 45
2.5 Pre-processing directives ........................................................................................................................ 45
2.5.1 Conditional compilation symbols ..................................................................................................... 47
2.5.2 Pre-processing expressions .............................................................................................................. 47
2.5.3 Declaration directives ...................................................................................................................... 48
2.5.4 Conditional compilation directives ................................................................................................... 49
2.5.5 Diagnostic directives........................................................................................................................ 51
2.5.6 Region directives ............................................................................................................................. 52
2.5.7 Line directives ................................................................................................................................. 52
2.5.8 Pragma directives ............................................................................................................................ 53
2.5.8.1 Pragma warning ........................................................................................................................ 53
3. Basic concepts ............................................................................................................................................ 55
3.1 Application Startup ................................................................................................................................ 55
3.2 Application termination .......................................................................................................................... 56
3.3 Declarations ........................................................................................................................................... 56
3.4 Members ................................................................................................................................................ 58
3.4.1 Namespace members ....................................................................................................................... 58
3.4.2 Struct members ................................................................................................................................ 59
3.4.3 Enumeration members ..................................................................................................................... 59
3.4.4 Class members ................................................................................................................................. 59
3.4.5 Interface members ........................................................................................................................... 60
3.4.6 Array members ................................................................................................................................ 60
3.4.7 Delegate members ........................................................................................................................... 60
3.5 Member access....................................................................................................................................... 60
3.5.1 Declared accessibility ...................................................................................................................... 60
3.5.2 Accessibility domains ...................................................................................................................... 61
3.5.3 Protected access for instance members ............................................................................................. 63
3.5.4 Accessibility constraints .................................................................................................................. 64
3.6 Signatures and overloading..................................................................................................................... 65
3.7 Scopes ................................................................................................................................................... 66
3.7.1 Name hiding .................................................................................................................................... 69
3.7.1.1 Hiding through nesting .............................................................................................................. 69
3.7.1.2 Hiding through inheritance ........................................................................................................ 70
3.8 Namespace and type names .................................................................................................................... 71
3.8.1 Fully qualified names....................................................................................................................... 73
3.9 Automatic memory management ............................................................................................................ 73
3.10 Execution order .................................................................................................................................... 76
4. Types .......................................................................................................................................................... 77
4.1 Value types ............................................................................................................................................ 77
4.1.1 The System.ValueType type ............................................................................................................ 78
4.1.2 Default constructors ......................................................................................................................... 78
4.1.3 Struct types ...................................................................................................................................... 79
4.1.4 Simple types .................................................................................................................................... 79
4.1.5 Integral types ................................................................................................................................... 80
4.1.6 Floating point types ......................................................................................................................... 81

iv Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved.

 Table of Contents

4.1.7 The decimal type ............................................................................................................................. 82

4.1.8 The bool type ................................................................................................................................... 83
4.1.9 Enumeration types ........................................................................................................................... 83
4.1.10 Nullable types ................................................................................................................................ 83
4.2 Reference types ...................................................................................................................................... 84
4.2.1 Class types ....................................................................................................................................... 84
4.2.2 The object type ................................................................................................................................ 85
4.2.3 The string type ................................................................................................................................. 85
4.2.4 Interface types ................................................................................................................................. 85
4.2.5 Array types ...................................................................................................................................... 85
4.2.6 Delegate types ................................................................................................................................. 85
4.3 Boxing and unboxing ............................................................................................................................. 86
4.3.1 Boxing conversions ......................................................................................................................... 86
4.3.2 Unboxing conversions ..................................................................................................................... 87
4.4 Constructed types ................................................................................................................................... 88
4.4.1 Type arguments ............................................................................................................................... 89
4.4.2 Open and closed types ..................................................................................................................... 89
4.4.3 Bound and unbound types ................................................................................................................ 89
4.4.4 Satisfying constraints ....................................................................................................................... 89
4.5 Type parameters ..................................................................................................................................... 90
4.6 Expression tree types .............................................................................................................................. 91
5. Variables .................................................................................................................................................... 93
5.1 Variable categories ................................................................................................................................. 93
5.1.1 Static variables ................................................................................................................................ 93
5.1.2 Instance variables ............................................................................................................................ 93
5.1.2.1 Instance variables in classes....................................................................................................... 94
5.1.2.2 Instance variables in structs ....................................................................................................... 94
5.1.3 Array elements ................................................................................................................................ 94
5.1.4 Value parameters ............................................................................................................................. 94
5.1.5 Reference parameters ....................................................................................................................... 94
5.1.6 Output parameters............................................................................................................................ 95
5.1.7 Local variables ................................................................................................................................ 95
5.2 Default values ........................................................................................................................................ 96
5.3 Definite assignment ................................................................................................................................ 96
5.3.1 Initially assigned variables ............................................................................................................... 97
5.3.2 Initially unassigned variables ........................................................................................................... 97
5.3.3 Precise rules for determining definite assignment ............................................................................. 97
5.3.3.1 General rules for statements....................................................................................................... 98
5.3.3.2 Block statements, checked, and unchecked statements ............................................................... 98
5.3.3.3 Expression statements................................................................................................................ 98
5.3.3.4 Declaration statements............................................................................................................... 99
5.3.3.5 If statements .............................................................................................................................. 99
5.3.3.6 Switch statements ...................................................................................................................... 99
5.3.3.7 While statements ....................................................................................................................... 99
5.3.3.8 Do statements .......................................................................................................................... 100
5.3.3.9 For statements ......................................................................................................................... 100
5.3.3.10 Break, continue, and goto statements ..................................................................................... 100
5.3.3.11 Throw statements .................................................................................................................. 100
5.3.3.12 Return statements .................................................................................................................. 100
5.3.3.13 Try-catch statements .............................................................................................................. 101

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved. v

C# LANGUAGE SPECIFICATION

5.3.3.14 Try-finally statements ............................................................................................................ 101

5.3.3.15 Try-catch-finally statements .................................................................................................. 101
5.3.3.16 Foreach statements ................................................................................................................ 102
5.3.3.17 Using statements ................................................................................................................... 102
5.3.3.18 Lock statements ..................................................................................................................... 103
5.3.3.19 Yield statements .................................................................................................................... 103
5.3.3.20 General rules for simple expressions ...................................................................................... 103
5.3.3.21 General rules for expressions with embedded expressions ...................................................... 103
5.3.3.22 Invocation expressions and object creation expressions .......................................................... 104
5.3.3.23 Simple assignment expressions .............................................................................................. 104
5.3.3.24 && expressions ..................................................................................................................... 104
5.3.3.25 || expressions ......................................................................................................................... 105
5.3.3.26 ! expressions.......................................................................................................................... 106
5.3.3.27 ?? expressions ....................................................................................................................... 106
5.3.3.28 ?: expressions ........................................................................................................................ 107
5.3.3.29 Anonymous functions ............................................................................................................ 107
5.4 Variable references .............................................................................................................................. 108
5.5 Atomicity of variable references ........................................................................................................... 108
6. Conversions.............................................................................................................................................. 109
6.1 Implicit conversions ............................................................................................................................. 109
6.1.1 Identity conversion ........................................................................................................................ 109
6.1.2 Implicit numeric conversions ......................................................................................................... 109
6.1.3 Implicit enumeration conversions................................................................................................... 110
6.1.4 Implicit nullable conversions ......................................................................................................... 110
6.1.5 Null literal conversions .................................................................................................................. 110
6.1.6 Implicit reference conversions ....................................................................................................... 111
6.1.7 Boxing conversions ....................................................................................................................... 111
6.1.8 Implicit constant expression conversions........................................................................................ 112
6.1.9 Implicit conversions involving type parameters .............................................................................. 112
6.1.10 User-defined implicit conversions ................................................................................................ 112
6.1.11 Anonymous function conversions and method group conversions ................................................ 112
6.2 Explicit conversions ............................................................................................................................. 112
6.2.1 Explicit numeric conversions ......................................................................................................... 113
6.2.2 Explicit enumeration conversions................................................................................................... 114
6.2.3 Explicit nullable conversions ......................................................................................................... 115
6.2.4 Explicit reference conversions ....................................................................................................... 115
6.2.5 Unboxing conversions ................................................................................................................... 116
6.2.6 Explicit conversions involving type parameters .............................................................................. 116
6.2.7 User-defined explicit conversions .................................................................................................. 117
6.3 Standard conversions............................................................................................................................ 117
6.3.1 Standard implicit conversions ........................................................................................................ 117
6.3.2 Standard explicit conversions ......................................................................................................... 118
6.4 User-defined conversions ..................................................................................................................... 118
6.4.1 Permitted user-defined conversions ................................................................................................ 118
6.4.2 Lifted conversion operators ............................................................................................................ 118
6.4.3 Evaluation of user-defined conversions .......................................................................................... 118
6.4.4 User-defined implicit conversions .................................................................................................. 119
6.4.5 User-defined explicit conversions .................................................................................................. 120
6.5 Anonymous function conversions ......................................................................................................... 121
6.5.1 Evaluation of anonymous function conversions to delegate types ................................................... 122

vi Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved.

 Table of Contents

6.5.2 Evaluation of anonymous function conversions to expression tree types ......................................... 123
6.5.3 Implementation example ................................................................................................................ 123
6.6 Method group conversions ................................................................................................................... 125
7. Expressions .............................................................................................................................................. 129
7.1 Expression classifications ..................................................................................................................... 129
7.1.1 Values of expressions .................................................................................................................... 130
7.2 Operators ............................................................................................................................................. 130
7.2.1 Operator precedence and associativity............................................................................................ 130
7.2.2 Operator overloading ..................................................................................................................... 131
7.2.3 Unary operator overload resolution ................................................................................................ 133
7.2.4 Binary operator overload resolution ............................................................................................... 133
7.2.5 Candidate user-defined operators ................................................................................................... 133
7.2.6 Numeric promotions ...................................................................................................................... 134
7.2.6.1 Unary numeric promotions ...................................................................................................... 134
7.2.6.2 Binary numeric promotions ..................................................................................................... 134
7.2.7 Lifted operators ............................................................................................................................. 135
7.3 Member lookup .................................................................................................................................... 136
7.3.1 Base types ..................................................................................................................................... 137
7.4 Function members ................................................................................................................................ 137
7.4.1 Argument lists ............................................................................................................................... 140
7.4.2 Type inference ............................................................................................................................... 142
7.4.2.1 The first phase ......................................................................................................................... 143
7.4.2.2 The second phase .................................................................................................................... 143
7.4.2.3 Input types .............................................................................................................................. 143
7.4.2.4 Output types ............................................................................................................................ 143
7.4.2.5 Dependence ............................................................................................................................. 143
7.4.2.6 Output type inferences ............................................................................................................. 143
7.4.2.7 Explicit parameter type inferences ........................................................................................... 144
7.4.2.8 Exact inferences ...................................................................................................................... 144
7.4.2.9 Lower-bound inferences .......................................................................................................... 144
7.4.2.10 Fixing.................................................................................................................................... 144
7.4.2.11 Inferred return type ................................................................................................................ 145
7.4.2.12 Type inference for conversion of method groups.................................................................... 146
7.4.2.13 Finding the best common type of a set of expressions ............................................................ 146
7.4.3 Overload resolution ....................................................................................................................... 146
7.4.3.1 Applicable function member.................................................................................................... 147
7.4.3.2 Better function member ........................................................................................................... 147
7.4.3.3 Better conversion from expression ........................................................................................... 148
7.4.3.4 Better conversion from type ..................................................................................................... 149
7.4.3.5 Overloading in generic classes ................................................................................................. 149
7.4.4 Function member invocation .......................................................................................................... 150
7.4.4.1 Invocations on boxed instances ................................................................................................ 151
7.5 Primary expressions ............................................................................................................................. 151
7.5.1 Literals .......................................................................................................................................... 152
7.5.2 Simple names ................................................................................................................................ 152
7.5.2.1 Invariant meaning in blocks ..................................................................................................... 154
7.5.3 Parenthesized expressions .............................................................................................................. 154
7.5.4 Member access .............................................................................................................................. 155
7.5.4.1 Identical simple names and type names.................................................................................... 156
7.5.4.2 Grammar ambiguities .............................................................................................................. 157

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved. vii

C# LANGUAGE SPECIFICATION

7.5.5 Invocation expressions ................................................................................................................... 158

7.5.5.1 Method invocations ................................................................................................................. 158
7.5.5.2 Extension method invocations ................................................................................................. 159
7.5.5.3 Delegate invocations ............................................................................................................... 161
7.5.6 Element access .............................................................................................................................. 162
7.5.6.1 Array access ............................................................................................................................ 162
7.5.6.2 Indexer access ......................................................................................................................... 163
7.5.7 This access .................................................................................................................................... 163
7.5.8 Base access .................................................................................................................................... 164
7.5.9 Postfix increment and decrement operators .................................................................................... 164
7.5.10 The new operator ......................................................................................................................... 165
7.5.10.1 Object creation expressions ................................................................................................... 166
7.5.10.2 Object initializers .................................................................................................................. 167
7.5.10.3 Collection initializers............................................................................................................. 169
7.5.10.4 Array creation expressions ..................................................................................................... 170
7.5.10.5 Delegate creation expressions ................................................................................................ 172
7.5.10.6 Anonymous object creation expressions................................................................................. 173
7.5.11 The typeof operator ...................................................................................................................... 175
7.5.12 The checked and unchecked operators .......................................................................................... 176
7.5.13 Default value expressions............................................................................................................. 178
7.5.14 Anonymous method expressions .................................................................................................. 179
7.6 Unary operators.................................................................................................................................... 179
7.6.1 Unary plus operator ....................................................................................................................... 179
7.6.2 Unary minus operator .................................................................................................................... 179
7.6.3 Logical negation operator .............................................................................................................. 180
7.6.4 Bitwise complement operator ......................................................................................................... 180
7.6.5 Prefix increment and decrement operators ...................................................................................... 181
7.6.6 Cast expressions ............................................................................................................................ 181
7.7 Arithmetic operators............................................................................................................................. 182
7.7.1 Multiplication operator .................................................................................................................. 182
7.7.2 Division operator ........................................................................................................................... 183
7.7.3 Remainder operator ....................................................................................................................... 184
7.7.4 Addition operator........................................................................................................................... 185
7.7.5 Subtraction operator....................................................................................................................... 187
7.8 Shift operators ...................................................................................................................................... 189
7.9 Relational and type-testing operators .................................................................................................... 190
7.9.1 Integer comparison operators ......................................................................................................... 190
7.9.2 Floating-point comparison operators .............................................................................................. 191
7.9.3 Decimal comparison operators ....................................................................................................... 192
7.9.4 Boolean equality operators ............................................................................................................. 192
7.9.5 Enumeration comparison operators ................................................................................................ 192
7.9.6 Reference type equality operators................................................................................................... 192
7.9.7 String equality operators ................................................................................................................ 194
7.9.8 Delegate equality operators ............................................................................................................ 194
7.9.9 Equality operators and null ............................................................................................................ 195
7.9.10 The is operator ............................................................................................................................. 195
7.9.11 The as operator ............................................................................................................................ 196
7.10 Logical operators................................................................................................................................ 196
7.10.1 Integer logical operators............................................................................................................... 197
7.10.2 Enumeration logical operators ...................................................................................................... 197
7.10.3 Boolean logical operators ............................................................................................................. 197

viii Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved.

 Table of Contents

7.10.4 Nullable boolean logical operators ............................................................................................... 197

7.11 Conditional logical operators .............................................................................................................. 198
7.11.1 Boolean conditional logical operators........................................................................................... 199
7.11.2 User-defined conditional logical operators ................................................................................... 199
7.12 The null coalescing operator ............................................................................................................... 199
7.13 Conditional operator........................................................................................................................... 200
7.14 Anonymous function expressions ....................................................................................................... 201
7.14.1 Anonymous function signatures ................................................................................................... 203
7.14.2 Anonymous function bodies ......................................................................................................... 203
7.14.3 Overload resolution...................................................................................................................... 204
7.14.4 Outer variables............................................................................................................................. 204
7.14.4.1 Captured outer variables ........................................................................................................ 204
7.14.4.2 Instantiation of local variables ............................................................................................... 205
7.14.5 Evaluation of anonymous function expressions ............................................................................ 207
7.15 Query expressions .............................................................................................................................. 207
7.15.1 Ambiguities in query expressions ................................................................................................. 209
7.15.2 Query expression translation ........................................................................................................ 209
7.15.2.1 Select and groupby clauses with continuations ....................................................................... 209
7.15.2.2 Explicit range variable types .................................................................................................. 210
7.15.2.3 Degenerate query expressions ................................................................................................ 210
7.15.2.4 From, let, where, join and orderby clauses ............................................................................. 211
7.15.2.5 Select clauses ........................................................................................................................ 214
7.15.2.6 Groupby clauses .................................................................................................................... 214
7.15.2.7 Transparent identifiers ........................................................................................................... 215
7.15.3 The query expression pattern........................................................................................................ 216
7.16 Assignment operators ......................................................................................................................... 217
7.16.1 Simple assignment ....................................................................................................................... 218
7.16.2 Compound assignment ................................................................................................................. 220
7.16.3 Event assignment ......................................................................................................................... 221
7.17 Expression ......................................................................................................................................... 221
7.18 Constant expressions .......................................................................................................................... 221
7.19 Boolean expressions ........................................................................................................................... 223
8. Statements ................................................................................................................................................ 225
8.1 End points and reachability .................................................................................................................. 225
8.2 Blocks .................................................................................................................................................. 227
8.2.1 Statement lists................................................................................................................................ 227
8.3 The empty statement ............................................................................................................................ 228
8.4 Labeled statements ............................................................................................................................... 228
8.5 Declaration statements ......................................................................................................................... 229
8.5.1 Local variable declarations............................................................................................................. 229
8.5.2 Local constant declarations ............................................................................................................ 230
8.6 Expression statements .......................................................................................................................... 231
8.7 Selection statements ............................................................................................................................. 231
8.7.1 The if statement ............................................................................................................................. 231
8.7.2 The switch statement ..................................................................................................................... 232
8.8 Iteration statements .............................................................................................................................. 235
8.8.1 The while statement ....................................................................................................................... 236
8.8.2 The do statement............................................................................................................................ 236
8.8.3 The for statement ........................................................................................................................... 237
8.8.4 The foreach statement .................................................................................................................... 238

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved. ix

C# LANGUAGE SPECIFICATION

8.9 Jump statements ................................................................................................................................... 240

8.9.1 The break statement ....................................................................................................................... 241
8.9.2 The continue statement .................................................................................................................. 242
8.9.3 The goto statement......................................................................................................................... 242
8.9.4 The return statement ...................................................................................................................... 243
8.9.5 The throw statement....................................................................................................................... 244
8.10 The try statement................................................................................................................................ 245
8.11 The checked and unchecked statements .............................................................................................. 248
8.12 The lock statement ............................................................................................................................. 248
8.13 The using statement............................................................................................................................ 249
8.14 The yield statement ............................................................................................................................ 251
9. Namespaces .............................................................................................................................................. 253
9.1 Compilation units ................................................................................................................................. 253
9.2 Namespace declarations ....................................................................................................................... 253
9.3 Extern aliases ....................................................................................................................................... 255
9.4 Using directives ................................................................................................................................... 255
9.4.1 Using alias directives ..................................................................................................................... 256
9.4.2 Using namespace directives ........................................................................................................... 258
9.5 Namespace members ............................................................................................................................ 260
9.6 Type declarations ................................................................................................................................. 260
9.7 Namespace alias qualifiers ................................................................................................................... 261
9.7.1 Uniqueness of aliases ..................................................................................................................... 262
10. Classes .................................................................................................................................................... 263
10.1 Class declarations ............................................................................................................................... 263
10.1.1 Class modifiers ............................................................................................................................ 263
10.1.1.1 Abstract classes ..................................................................................................................... 264
10.1.1.2 Sealed classes ........................................................................................................................ 264
10.1.1.3 Static classes ......................................................................................................................... 264
10.1.2 Partial modifier ............................................................................................................................ 265
10.1.3 Type parameters .......................................................................................................................... 265
10.1.4 Class base specification................................................................................................................ 266
10.1.4.1 Base classes........................................................................................................................... 266
10.1.4.2 Interface implementations ...................................................................................................... 267
10.1.5 Type parameter constraints .......................................................................................................... 268
10.1.6 Class body ................................................................................................................................... 272
10.2 Partial types ....................................................................................................................................... 272
10.2.1 Attributes ..................................................................................................................................... 272
10.2.2 Modifiers ..................................................................................................................................... 272
10.2.3 Type parameters and constraints .................................................................................................. 273
10.2.4 Base class .................................................................................................................................... 273
10.2.5 Base interfaces ............................................................................................................................. 273
10.2.6 Members...................................................................................................................................... 274
10.2.7 Partial methods ............................................................................................................................ 274
10.2.8 Name binding .............................................................................................................................. 277
10.3 Class members ................................................................................................................................... 277
10.3.1 The instance type ......................................................................................................................... 279
10.3.2 Members of constructed types ...................................................................................................... 279
10.3.3 Inheritance ................................................................................................................................... 280
10.3.4 The new modifier......................................................................................................................... 281

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10.3.5 Access modifiers.......................................................................................................................... 281

10.3.6 Constituent types ......................................................................................................................... 281
10.3.7 Static and instance members ........................................................................................................ 281
10.3.8 Nested types ................................................................................................................................ 282
10.3.8.1 Fully qualified name .............................................................................................................. 283
10.3.8.2 Declared accessibility ............................................................................................................ 283
10.3.8.3 Hiding ................................................................................................................................... 283
10.3.8.4 this access ............................................................................................................................. 284
10.3.8.5 Access to private and protected members of the containing type ............................................ 285
10.3.8.6 Nested types in generic classes .............................................................................................. 286
10.3.9 Reserved member names.............................................................................................................. 286
10.3.9.1 Member names reserved for properties .................................................................................. 287
10.3.9.2 Member names reserved for events ........................................................................................ 287
10.3.9.3 Member names reserved for indexers ..................................................................................... 287
10.3.9.4 Member names reserved for destructors ................................................................................. 288
10.4 Constants ........................................................................................................................................... 288
10.5 Fields ................................................................................................................................................. 289
10.5.1 Static and instance fields .............................................................................................................. 291
10.5.2 Readonly fields ............................................................................................................................ 291
10.5.2.1 Using static readonly fields for constants ............................................................................... 292
10.5.2.2 Versioning of constants and static readonly fields .................................................................. 292
10.5.3 Volatile fields .............................................................................................................................. 293
10.5.4 Field initialization ........................................................................................................................ 294
10.5.5 Variable initializers ...................................................................................................................... 294
10.5.5.1 Static field initialization ......................................................................................................... 295
10.5.5.2 Instance field initialization ..................................................................................................... 296
10.6 Methods ............................................................................................................................................. 297
10.6.1 Method parameters ...................................................................................................................... 298
10.6.1.1 Value parameters ................................................................................................................... 299
10.6.1.2 Reference parameters ............................................................................................................ 300
10.6.1.3 Output parameters ................................................................................................................. 301
10.6.1.4 Parameter arrays .................................................................................................................... 301
10.6.2 Static and instance methods ......................................................................................................... 304
10.6.3 Virtual methods ........................................................................................................................... 304
10.6.4 Override methods......................................................................................................................... 306
10.6.5 Sealed methods ............................................................................................................................ 308
10.6.6 Abstract methods ......................................................................................................................... 309
10.6.7 External methods ......................................................................................................................... 310
10.6.8 Partial methods ............................................................................................................................ 311
10.6.9 Extension methods ....................................................................................................................... 311
10.6.10 Method body.............................................................................................................................. 311
10.6.11 Method overloading ................................................................................................................... 312
10.7 Properties ........................................................................................................................................... 312
10.7.1 Static and instance properties ....................................................................................................... 313
10.7.2 Accessors..................................................................................................................................... 314
10.7.3 Automatically implemented properties ......................................................................................... 318
10.7.4 Accessibility ................................................................................................................................ 319
10.7.5 Virtual, sealed, override, and abstract accessors ........................................................................... 320
10.8 Events ................................................................................................................................................ 322
10.8.1 Field-like events .......................................................................................................................... 324
10.8.2 Event accessors ............................................................................................................................ 325

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved. xi

C# LANGUAGE SPECIFICATION

10.8.3 Static and instance events ............................................................................................................. 326

10.8.4 Virtual, sealed, override, and abstract accessors ........................................................................... 327
10.9 Indexers ............................................................................................................................................. 327
10.9.1 Indexer overloading ..................................................................................................................... 331
10.10 Operators ......................................................................................................................................... 331
10.10.1 Unary operators ......................................................................................................................... 333
10.10.2 Binary operators......................................................................................................................... 333
10.10.3 Conversion operators ................................................................................................................. 334
10.11 Instance constructors ........................................................................................................................ 336
10.11.1 Constructor initializers ............................................................................................................... 337
10.11.2 Instance variable initializers ....................................................................................................... 338
10.11.3 Constructor execution ................................................................................................................ 338
10.11.4 Default constructors ................................................................................................................... 340
10.11.5 Private constructors .................................................................................................................... 340
10.11.6 Optional instance constructor parameters ................................................................................... 341
10.12 Static constructors ............................................................................................................................ 341
10.13 Destructors ....................................................................................................................................... 343
10.14 Iterators ............................................................................................................................................ 345
10.14.1 Enumerator interfaces ................................................................................................................ 345
10.14.2 Enumerable interfaces ................................................................................................................ 345
10.14.3 Yield type .................................................................................................................................. 345
10.14.4 Enumerator objects .................................................................................................................... 345
10.14.4.1 The MoveNext method ........................................................................................................ 346
10.14.4.2 The Current property ........................................................................................................... 347
10.14.4.3 The Dispose method ............................................................................................................ 347
10.14.5 Enumerable objects .................................................................................................................... 347
10.14.5.1 The GetEnumerator method ................................................................................................. 348
10.14.6 Implementation example ............................................................................................................ 348
11. Structs .................................................................................................................................................... 355
11.1 Struct declarations .............................................................................................................................. 355
11.1.1 Struct modifiers ........................................................................................................................... 355
11.1.2 Partial modifier ............................................................................................................................ 356
11.1.3 Struct interfaces ........................................................................................................................... 356
11.1.4 Struct body .................................................................................................................................. 356
11.2 Struct members .................................................................................................................................. 356
11.3 Class and struct differences ................................................................................................................ 356
11.3.1 Value semantics ........................................................................................................................... 357
11.3.2 Inheritance ................................................................................................................................... 358
11.3.3 Assignment .................................................................................................................................. 358
11.3.4 Default values .............................................................................................................................. 358
11.3.5 Boxing and unboxing ................................................................................................................... 359
11.3.6 Meaning of this ............................................................................................................................ 360
11.3.7 Field initializers ........................................................................................................................... 361
11.3.8 Constructors ................................................................................................................................ 361
11.3.9 Destructors .................................................................................................................................. 362
11.3.10 Static constructors ...................................................................................................................... 362
11.4 Struct examples .................................................................................................................................. 362
11.4.1 Database integer type ................................................................................................................... 362
11.4.2 Database boolean type ................................................................................................................. 364
12. Arrays .................................................................................................................................................... 367

xii Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved.

 Table of Contents

12.1 Array types ........................................................................................................................................ 367

12.1.1 The System.Array type ................................................................................................................ 368
12.1.2 Arrays and the generic IList interface ........................................................................................... 368
12.2 Array creation .................................................................................................................................... 368
12.3 Array element access .......................................................................................................................... 369
12.4 Array members................................................................................................................................... 369
12.5 Array covariance ................................................................................................................................ 369
12.6 Array initializers ................................................................................................................................ 369
13. Interfaces ............................................................................................................................................... 373
13.1 Interface declarations ......................................................................................................................... 373
13.1.1 Interface modifiers ....................................................................................................................... 373
13.1.2 Partial modifier ............................................................................................................................ 373
13.1.3 Base interfaces ............................................................................................................................. 374
13.1.4 Interface body .............................................................................................................................. 374
13.2 Interface members .............................................................................................................................. 374
13.2.1 Interface methods......................................................................................................................... 376
13.2.2 Interface properties ...................................................................................................................... 376
13.2.3 Interface events ............................................................................................................................ 376
13.2.4 Interface indexers......................................................................................................................... 376
13.2.5 Interface member access .............................................................................................................. 377
13.3 Fully qualified interface member names ............................................................................................. 378
13.4 Interface implementations .................................................................................................................. 379
13.4.1 Explicit interface member implementations .................................................................................. 380
13.4.2 Uniqueness of implemented interfaces ......................................................................................... 382
13.4.3 Implementation of generic methods.............................................................................................. 383
13.4.4 Interface mapping ........................................................................................................................ 383
13.4.5 Interface implementation inheritance............................................................................................ 386
13.4.6 Interface re-implementation ......................................................................................................... 387
13.4.7 Abstract classes and interfaces ..................................................................................................... 389
14. Enums .................................................................................................................................................... 391
14.1 Enum declarations .............................................................................................................................. 391
14.2 Enum modifiers.................................................................................................................................. 391
14.3 Enum members .................................................................................................................................. 392
14.4 The System.Enum type....................................................................................................................... 394
14.5 Enum values and operations ............................................................................................................... 394
15. Delegates ................................................................................................................................................ 395
15.1 Delegate declarations ......................................................................................................................... 395
15.2 Delegate compatibility ....................................................................................................................... 397
15.3 Delegate instantiation ......................................................................................................................... 397
15.4 Delegate invocation ............................................................................................................................ 398
16. Exceptions .............................................................................................................................................. 401
16.1 Causes of exceptions .......................................................................................................................... 401
16.2 The System.Exception class ............................................................................................................... 401
16.3 How exceptions are handled ............................................................................................................... 401
16.4 Common Exception Classes ............................................................................................................... 402
17. Attributes ............................................................................................................................................... 405
17.1 Attribute classes ................................................................................................................................. 405

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved. xiii

C# LANGUAGE SPECIFICATION

17.1.1 Attribute usage............................................................................................................................. 405

17.1.2 Positional and named parameters ................................................................................................. 406
17.1.3 Attribute parameter types ............................................................................................................. 407
17.2 Attribute specification ........................................................................................................................ 407
17.3 Attribute instances.............................................................................................................................. 412
17.3.1 Compilation of an attribute........................................................................................................... 413
17.3.2 Run-time retrieval of an attribute instance .................................................................................... 413
17.4 Reserved attributes ............................................................................................................................. 413
17.4.1 The AttributeUsage attribute ........................................................................................................ 413
17.4.2 The Conditional attribute ............................................................................................................. 414
17.4.2.1 Conditional methods .............................................................................................................. 414
17.4.2.2 Conditional attribute classes .................................................................................................. 416
17.4.3 The Obsolete attribute .................................................................................................................. 417
17.5 Attributes for Interoperation ............................................................................................................... 418
17.5.1 Interoperation with COM and Win32 components ........................................................................ 419
17.5.2 Interoperation with other .NET languages .................................................................................... 419
17.5.2.1 The IndexerName attribute .................................................................................................... 419
18. Unsafe code ............................................................................................................................................ 421
18.1 Unsafe contexts .................................................................................................................................. 421
18.2 Pointer types ...................................................................................................................................... 423
18.3 Fixed and moveable variables ............................................................................................................. 426
18.4 Pointer conversions ............................................................................................................................ 426
18.5 Pointers in expressions ....................................................................................................................... 427
18.5.1 Pointer indirection ....................................................................................................................... 428
18.5.2 Pointer member access ................................................................................................................. 428
18.5.3 Pointer element access ................................................................................................................. 429
18.5.4 The address-of operator................................................................................................................ 430
18.5.5 Pointer increment and decrement ................................................................................................. 431
18.5.6 Pointer arithmetic......................................................................................................................... 431
18.5.7 Pointer comparison ...................................................................................................................... 432
18.5.8 The sizeof operator ...................................................................................................................... 432
18.6 The fixed statement ............................................................................................................................ 433
18.7 Fixed size buffers ............................................................................................................................... 436
18.7.1 Fixed size buffer declarations ....................................................................................................... 436
18.7.2 Fixed size buffers in expressions .................................................................................................. 438
18.7.3 Definite assignment checking....................................................................................................... 438
18.8 Stack allocation .................................................................................................................................. 439
18.9 Dynamic memory allocation ............................................................................................................... 440
A. Documentation comments ...................................................................................................................... 443
A.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 443
A.2 Recommended tags ............................................................................................................................. 444
A.2.1 <c> ............................................................................................................................................... 445
A.2.2 <code>.......................................................................................................................................... 445
A.2.3 <example> .................................................................................................................................... 446
A.2.4 <exception> .................................................................................................................................. 446
A.2.5 <include>...................................................................................................................................... 447
A.2.6 <list> ............................................................................................................................................ 447
A.2.7 <para> .......................................................................................................................................... 448
A.2.8 <param> ....................................................................................................................................... 449

xiv Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved.

 Table of Contents

A.2.9 <paramref> ................................................................................................................................... 449

A.2.10 <permission> .............................................................................................................................. 449
A.2.11 <summary> ................................................................................................................................. 450
A.2.12 <returns> .................................................................................................................................... 450
A.2.13 <see> .......................................................................................................................................... 451
A.2.14 <seealso> .................................................................................................................................... 451
A.2.15 <summary> ................................................................................................................................. 452
A.2.16 <value>....................................................................................................................................... 452
A.2.17 <typeparam> ............................................................................................................................... 452
A.2.18 <typeparamref> .......................................................................................................................... 453
A.3 Processing the documentation file........................................................................................................ 453
A.3.1 ID string format ............................................................................................................................ 453
A.3.2 ID string examples ........................................................................................................................ 454
A.4 An example ......................................................................................................................................... 458
A.4.1 C# source code.............................................................................................................................. 458
A.4.2 Resulting XML ............................................................................................................................. 460
B. Grammar................................................................................................................................................. 466
B.1 Lexical grammar ................................................................................................................................. 466
B.1.1 Line terminators ............................................................................................................................ 466
B.1.2 Comments ..................................................................................................................................... 466
B.1.3 White space................................................................................................................................... 467
B.1.4 Tokens .......................................................................................................................................... 467
B.1.5 Unicode character escape sequences .............................................................................................. 467
B.1.6 Identifiers...................................................................................................................................... 468
B.1.7 Keywords...................................................................................................................................... 469
B.1.8 Literals.......................................................................................................................................... 469
B.1.9 Operators and punctuators ............................................................................................................. 471
B.1.10 Pre-processing directives ............................................................................................................. 471
B.2 Syntactic grammar ............................................................................................................................... 474
B.2.1 Basic concepts .............................................................................................................................. 474
B.2.2 Types ............................................................................................................................................ 474
B.2.3 Variables....................................................................................................................................... 475
B.2.4 Expressions ................................................................................................................................... 476
B.2.5 Statements..................................................................................................................................... 482
B.2.6 Namespaces .................................................................................................................................. 486
B.2.7 Classes .......................................................................................................................................... 487
B.2.8 Structs ........................................................................................................................................... 494
B.2.9 Arrays ........................................................................................................................................... 494
B.2.10 Interfaces .................................................................................................................................... 495
B.2.11 Enums ......................................................................................................................................... 496
B.2.12 Delegates .................................................................................................................................... 496
B.2.13 Attributes .................................................................................................................................... 497
B.3 Grammar extensions for unsafe code ................................................................................................... 498
C. References ............................................................................................................................................... 503

Copyright  Microsoft Corporation 1999-2007. All Rights Reserved. xv

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