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 Second Edition

Atomization
and Sprays
Arthur H. Lefebvre
Vincent G. McDonell
Atomization and Sprays
Combustion: An International Series
Norman Chigier, Editor

Bayvel and Orzechowski, Liquid Atomization

Chigier, Combustion Measurements
Kuznetsov and Sabel’nikov, Turbulence and Combustion
Lefebvre, Atomization and Sprays
Atomization and Sprays

Arthur H. Lefebvre and Vincent G. McDonell

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
Version Date: 20161115
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-3625-1 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and
information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Lefebvre, Arthur H. (Arthur Henry), 1923–2003, author. | McDonell,

Vincent G., author.
Title: Atomization and sprays / Arthur H. Lefebvre and Vincent G. McDonell.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016028367| ISBN 9781498736251 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781498736268 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Spraying. | Atomization.
Classification: LCC TP156.S6 L44 2017 | DDC 660/.2961--dc23

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Contents

Preface to the Second Edition...................................................................................................................................................xi

Preface to the First Edition..................................................................................................................................................... xiii
Authors.......................................................................................................................................................................................xv

1. General Considerations..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Atomization.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Atomizers.............................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Pressure Atomizers......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Rotary Atomizers............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Air-Assist Atomizers...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Airblast Atomizers.......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Other Types...................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Factors Influencing Atomization....................................................................................................................................... 6
Liquid Properties............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Ambient Conditions....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Spray Characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Applications........................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Glossary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 13
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 16

2. Basic Processes in Atomization..................................................................................................................................... 17

Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Static Drop Formation....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Breakup of Drops............................................................................................................................................................... 18
Drop Breakup in Flowing Air..................................................................................................................................... 18
Drop Breakup in Turbulent Flow Fields.................................................................................................................... 22
Drop Breakup in Viscous Flow Fields....................................................................................................................... 23
Disintegration of Liquid Jets............................................................................................................................................ 24
Influence of Jet Velocity Profile................................................................................................................................... 29
Stability Curve............................................................................................................................................................... 32
Disintegration of Liquid Sheets....................................................................................................................................... 39
Flat Sheets...................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Conical Sheets................................................................................................................................................................ 46
Fan Sheets....................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Prompt Atomization.......................................................................................................................................................... 48
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Nomenclature..................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Subscripts....................................................................................................................................................................... 50
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 50

3. Drop Size Distributions of Sprays................................................................................................................................ 55

Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................ 55
Graphical Representation of Drop Size Distributions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
Mathematical Distribution Functions............................................................................................................................. 56
Normal Distribution..................................................................................................................................................... 57
Log-Normal Distribution............................................................................................................................................. 58
Log-Hyperbolic Distribution....................................................................................................................................... 58
Empirical Distribution Functions.................................................................................................................................... 58
Nukiyama and Tanasawa............................................................................................................................................ 59

v
vi Contents

Rosin–Rammler............................................................................................................................................................. 59
Modified Rosin–Rammler........................................................................................................................................... 59
Upper-Limit Function.................................................................................................................................................. 60
Summary........................................................................................................................................................................ 60
Mean Diameters................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Representative Diameters................................................................................................................................................. 63
Drop Size Dispersion........................................................................................................................................................ 67
Droplet Uniformity Index............................................................................................................................................ 67
Relative Span Factor...................................................................................................................................................... 67
Dispersion Index........................................................................................................................................................... 68
Dispersion Boundary Factor........................................................................................................................................ 68
Joint Size and Velocity Distributions.............................................................................................................................. 68
Concluding Remarks......................................................................................................................................................... 68
Nomenclature..................................................................................................................................................................... 69
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 69

4. Atomizers........................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Atomizer Requirements.................................................................................................................................................... 71
Pressure Atomizers........................................................................................................................................................... 71
Plain Orifice................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Simplex........................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Wide-Range Nozzles.................................................................................................................................................... 79
Use of Shroud Air......................................................................................................................................................... 83
Fan Spray Nozzles......................................................................................................................................................... 84
Rotary Atomizers............................................................................................................................................................... 86
Slinger System............................................................................................................................................................... 87
Air-Assist Atomizers......................................................................................................................................................... 89
Airblast Atomizers............................................................................................................................................................ 92
Effervescent Atomizers..................................................................................................................................................... 94
Electrostatic Atomizers..................................................................................................................................................... 95
Ultrasonic Atomizers........................................................................................................................................................ 96
Whistle Atomizers............................................................................................................................................................. 98
Manufacturing Aspects.................................................................................................................................................... 99
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 99

5 Flow in Atomizers.......................................................................................................................................................... 105

Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Flow Number................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Plain-Orifice Atomizer.................................................................................................................................................... 106
Discharge Coefficient................................................................................................................................................. 106
Pressure-Swirl Atomizer................................................................................................................................................ 112
Discharge Coefficient..................................................................................................................................................113
Film Thickness.............................................................................................................................................................117
Flow Number............................................................................................................................................................... 121
Velocity Coefficient..................................................................................................................................................... 123
Further Perspective..................................................................................................................................................... 125
Rotary Atomizer.............................................................................................................................................................. 126
Critical Flow Rates........................................................................................................................................................... 126
Film Thickness................................................................................................................................................................. 127
Toothed Designs.............................................................................................................................................................. 127
Airblast Atomizer............................................................................................................................................................ 128
Nomenclature................................................................................................................................................................... 129
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 130
Contents vii

6 Atomizer Performance�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133

Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Plain-Orifice Atomizer.................................................................................................................................................... 133
Quiescent Environment............................................................................................................................................. 133
Crossflow...................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Pressure-Swirl Atomizers���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 135
Effect of Variables on Mean Drop Size.................................................................................................................... 135
Drop Size Relationships..............................................................................................................................................141
Rotary Atomizers............................................................................................................................................................. 146
Drop Size Equations for Smooth Flat Vane-Less Disks......................................................................................... 147
Drop Size Equations for Other Vane-Less Disks.................................................................................................... 148
Drop Size Equations for Atomizer Wheels............................................................................................................. 149
Drop Size Equations for Slinger Injectors............................................................................................................... 150
Air-Assist Atomizers....................................................................................................................................................... 150
Internal-Mixing Nozzles............................................................................................................................................ 150
External-Mixing Nozzles........................................................................................................................................... 152
Airblast Atomizers.......................................................................................................................................................... 156
Plain Jet......................................................................................................................................................................... 156
Prefilming.....................................................................................................................................................................161
Miscellaneous Types................................................................................................................................................... 166
Plain-Jet Atomization by a Crossflow................................................................................................................. 166
Plain-Jet Impingement Injector.............................................................................................................................167
Other Designs..........................................................................................................................................................167
Effect of Variables on Mean Drop Size.................................................................................................................... 169
Analysis of Drop Size Relationships........................................................................................................................ 171
Summary of the Main Points.................................................................................................................................... 172
Effervescent Atomizer..................................................................................................................................................... 173
Electrostatic Atomizers................................................................................................................................................... 175
Ultrasonic Atomizers...................................................................................................................................................... 175
Nomenclature................................................................................................................................................................... 177
Subscripts
. .................................................................................................................................................................... 177
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 178

7 External Spray Characteristics..................................................................................................................................... 183

Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 183
Spray Properties............................................................................................................................................................... 183
Dispersion.................................................................................................................................................................... 183
Penetration................................................................................................................................................................... 183
Cone Angle................................................................................................................................................................... 184
Patternation.................................................................................................................................................................. 184
Radial Liquid Distribution........................................................................................................................................ 184
Equivalent Spray Angle............................................................................................................................................. 185
Circumferential Liquid Distribution........................................................................................................................ 185
Factors Influencing Spray Patternation.................................................................................................................... 186
Penetration........................................................................................................................................................................ 186
Plain Jet into Quiescent Environment...................................................................................................................... 186
Plain Jet into Crossflow.............................................................................................................................................. 188
Pressure-Swirl Nozzles.............................................................................................................................................. 189
Spray Cone Angle............................................................................................................................................................ 189
Pressure-Swirl Atomizers.......................................................................................................................................... 189
Plain-Orifice Atomizers........................................................................................................................................ 196
Circumferential Liquid Distribution............................................................................................................................ 198
Pressure-Swirl Nozzles.............................................................................................................................................. 198
Airblast Atomizers ..................................................................................................................................................... 198
viii Contents

Drop Drag Coefficients................................................................................................................................................... 200

Effect of Acceleration on Drag Coefficient.............................................................................................................. 202
Drag Coefficients for Evaporating Drops................................................................................................................ 202
Nomenclature................................................................................................................................................................... 203
Subscripts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 203

8 Drop Evaporation........................................................................................................................................................... 207

Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 207
Steady-State Evaporation................................................................................................................................................ 207
Measurement of Evaporation Rate........................................................................................................................... 208
Theoretical Background............................................................................................................................................. 208
Calculation of Steady-State Evaporation Rates.................................................................................................. 212
Evaporation Constant............................................................................................................................................ 213
Influence of Ambient Pressure and Temperature on Evaporation Rates.............................................................216
Evaporation at High Temperatures...........................................................................................................................216
Unsteady-State Analysis................................................................................................................................................. 218
Calculation of Heat-Up Period.................................................................................................................................. 218
Influence of Pressure and Temperature on Heat-Up Period................................................................................. 224
Summary of Main Points........................................................................................................................................... 225
Drop Lifetime................................................................................................................................................................... 225
Effect of Heat-Up Phase on Drop Lifetime.............................................................................................................. 228
Effect of Prevaporization on Drop Lifetime............................................................................................................ 228
Convective Effects on Evaporation................................................................................................................................ 229
Determination of Evaporation Constant and Drop Lifetime............................................................................... 231
Drop Lifetime.............................................................................................................................................................. 231
Calculation of Effective Evaporation Constant........................................................................................................... 232
Influence of Evaporation on Drop Size Distribution.................................................................................................. 234
Drop Burning................................................................................................................................................................... 235
Multicomponent Fuel Drops.......................................................................................................................................... 237
Nomenclature������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 239
Subscripts..................................................................................................................................................................... 239
References......................................................................................................................................................................... 240

9 Spray Size and Patternation Methods........................................................................................................................ 243

Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 243
Drop Sizing....................................................................................................................................................................... 243
Drop Sizing Methods................................................................................................................................................. 244
Factors Influencing Drop Size Measurement.......................................................................................................... 244
Spatial and Flux-Based Sampling............................................................................................................................. 244
Sample Size............................................................................................................................................................. 245
Drop Saturation...................................................................................................................................................... 246
Drop Evaporation................................................................................................................................................... 246
Drop Coalescence................................................................................................................................................... 247
Sampling Location................................................................................................................................................. 247
Mechanical Methods.................................................................................................................................................. 248
Collection of Drops on Slides............................................................................................................................... 248
Collection of Drops in Cells.................................................................................................................................. 249
Molten Wax Technique.......................................................................................................................................... 250
Drop Freezing Techniques.................................................................................................................................... 250
Cascade Impactors................................................................................................................................................. 251
Electrical Methods...................................................................................................................................................... 251
Wicks–Dukler Technique...................................................................................................................................... 251
Charged Wire Technique...................................................................................................................................... 252
Hot Wire Technique............................................................................................................................................... 252
Contents ix

Optical Methods.......................................................................................................................................................... 252

High Magnification Imaging................................................................................................................................ 252
Holography/Plenoptic........................................................................................................................................... 254
Time Gating............................................................................................................................................................. 255
X-Ray Methods....................................................................................................................................................... 256
Single-Particle Counters........................................................................................................................................ 256
Laser Diffraction Technique................................................................................................................................. 264
Intensity Ratio Method.......................................................................................................................................... 268
Planar Methods...................................................................................................................................................... 269
Calibration Techniques.......................................................................................................................................... 270
Spray Pattern.................................................................................................................................................................... 271
Mechanical................................................................................................................................................................... 271
Optical.......................................................................................................................................................................... 271
Imaging.................................................................................................................................................................... 271
Nonimaging............................................................................................................................................................ 272
Other Characteristics....................................................................................................................................................... 272
Comments Regarding Simulation................................................................................................................................. 272
Concluding Remarks........................................................................................................................................................274
References..........................................................................................................................................................................274

Index......................................................................................................................................................................................... 281
Preface to the Second Edition

The Second Edition of the book has been long overdue research direction and analysis. Through these times
and, as a result, it has been quite challenging to even I was able to get to know him better and to appreciate
attempt to address and incorporate numerous impor- his perspective regarding engineering, combustion,
tant contributions from the spray research community and atomization and sprays.
since the First Edition. The overarching theme of the In terms of the Second edition, a few points are worth
book’s content has remained connected to the practi- mentioning. First, the criticality of liquid properties in
cal, yet physically grounded approach taken by Arthur applying the design tools contained in the book cannot
Lefebvre throughout his incredible career—namely, be overemphasized and hence many new contributions
that as an engineer or practitioner of atomization have been made to Chapter 1. In addition, many new
and spray technology, simple to use design tools that studies have been carried out regarding the basic prin-
facilitate hardware development to achieve a particu- ciples of internal flow and spray behavior and hence
lar attribute in terms of spray behavior are extremely Chapter 2 has a significant amount of new material.
useful. While the field of atomization and sprays has While some efforts have been carried out in improv-
expanded significantly in the last 25+ years, the guid- ing the details and subtleties associated with describing
ing principles described in the First Edition remain in the droplet size and size distribution, the basic tools for
the Second Edition. As a result, contributions simply describing these remain largely the same as they existed
reporting observations, new methods, or even analyti- in the First Edition. What has changed is the ability to
cal approaches that have not distilled the information rapidly determine coefficients and constants through
into a form that can be readily applied are not high- readily available regression analysis tools. In addition,
lighted. While these contributions may have provided a observations regarding the statistical significance of the
path forward to generating a new model or design tool, various distributions (count, surface area, volume) have
emphasis has been given to the new model or tool them- been made in regards to extracting typical statistical
selves. And preference is given for the tools in which moments, such as standard deviation, skewness, and
all necessary information to apply it is readily available. so on from these distributions. Chapter 3 contains this
While incredibly detailed information can now be gar- information.
nered about spray performance via both measurement In terms of atomizer types, little has changed in
and simulation, it is important to realize that this infor- terms of the general classification of the various types.
mation is a means to the end, which in this case is to A few interesting concepts have evolved, but pressure-
innovate, develop, and improve atomization technology. based or twin-fluid approaches remain widely used.
While Arthur Lefebvre had few peers in his field Electrostatic and ultrasonic devices continue to be
during the development of the First Edition, this is no utilized. Thus, Chapter 4 remains similar to the First
longer the case with numerous researchers and devel- Edition, but consideration is given regarding innovation
opers now very active in the field. The information he through advanced manufacturing methods.
compiled from his vast research in preparing the First The internal flow of atomizers is an area in which sig-
Edition is still very relevant, but others have, and are con- nificant progress has been made in recent years due to
tributing. As only one of many contributors to this field, novel diagnostic methods and advancements in simula-
I remain humbled about the task of compiling updated tion. Hence, Chapter 5 contains additional details asso-
information from throughout the world and trying to ciated with cases in which cavitation is now understood
integrate it in a concise manner among the framework to play a key role in the atomization performance.
established within the First Edition. Undoubtedly, some Drop size and pattern remain a critical aspect of the
fine work has been overlooked, and to those contribu- performance of sprays. As a result, Chapters 6 and 7
tors, I can only apologize in advance. provide details on design tools that have evolved for
I had the honor and pleasure of knowing Arthur, describing these aspects. In this area, much progress
having met him at ASME, AIAA, and ILASS confer- has been made regarding jets in crossflow, which are
ences. He spent a few weeks each winter in Irvine used in many applications.
where he continued to provide his course on Gas For combustion applications, evaporation remains
Turbine Combustion with assistance from Scott a critical step. The work described in the First Edition
Samuelsen and Don Bahr. He relished his time meet- remains highly germane, although other developments
ing with students in the UCI Combustion Laboratory are now included. But for application to complex turbu-
and offered many excellent suggestions regarding lent sprays in practical combustion environments, some

xi
xii Preface to the Second Edition

of the simplifications associated with early work remain Scott Parrish, Randy McKinney, Doug Talley, Dom
quite appropriate for design work. Santavicca, Jon Guen Lee, May Corn, Jeff Cohen,
Finally, Chapter 9 is dedicated to instrumentation Corinne Lengsfeld, Norman Chigier, Jiro Senda, Paul
with some consideration for simulations. It has been Sojka, Marcus Herrmann, David Schmidt, Rudi Schick,
well established that, by working together, experimen- Jim Drallmeier, Lee Markle, Eva Gutheil, Lee Dodge,
tal measurements and simulations combined offer the Rick Stickles, Muh Rong Wang, and, of course, Arthur
greatest insight. Lefebvre among many others have been helpful in
I would like to thank the growing spray community establishing connections and inspiration throughout.
as a whole and in particular the Institutes for Liquid Thanks to Josh Holt, Ryan Ehlig, Rob Miller, Elliot
Atomization and Spray Systems (ILASS) from around Sullivan Lewis, Max Venaas, and Scott Leask for assis-
the world. The ILASS organizations, inspired and tance with various aspects of this edition. Derek Dunn-
founded by the same people who inspired the First Rankin, Roger Rangel, Enrique Lavernia, and Bill
Edition of this book, remain a significant forum for Sirignano have provided perspective and insight and
bringing spray research together. Appreciation is also have been an inspiration. Long-standing colleagues and
given to the journal Atomization and Sprays, which has collaborators Christopher Brown and Ulises Mondragon
provided a suitable means of archiving important spray of Energy Research Consultants have also provided
research in a single place. Of course, many journals friendship and in depth discussions over the years. A
contain relevant works, generally they are application special thank you to Scott Samuelsen who has been
driven and focused, and many new contributions to a great friend, colleague, and mentor. Also, I need to
diagnostic methods and simulation methods are found thank the many graduate and undergraduate students
among numerous sources. and staff of the UCI Combustion Laboratory who have
Ongoing discussions over the decades with Mel provided much enjoyment and discovery.
Roquemore, Hukam Mongia, Don Bahr, Lee Dodge, I must also thank my family, and especially my wife,
Will Bachalo, Mike Houser, Chris Edwards, Bill Sowa, Jan, who remained encouraging and supportive during
Tom Jackson, Barry Kiel, Rolf Reitz, Roger Rudoff, this time consuming, but rewarding process.
Greg Smallwood, Michael Benjamin, Masayuki
Adachi, Yannis Hardapulas, Alex Taylor, Chuck Lipp, Vincent McDonell
Preface to the First Edition

The transformation of bulk liquid into sprays and other which a liquid jet or sheet emerging from an atomizer is
physical dispersions of small particles in a gaseous broken down into drops.
atmosphere is of importance in several industrial pro- Owing to the heterogeneous nature of the atomiza-
cesses. These include combustion (spray combustion in tion process, most practical atomizers generate drops
furnaces, gas turbines, diesel engines, and rockets); pro- in the size range from a few micrometers up to around
cess industries (spray drying, evaporative cooling, pow- 500 µm. Thus, in addition to mean drop size, which may
dered metallurgy, and spray painting); agriculture (crop be satisfactory for many engineering purposes, another
spraying); and many other applications in medicine and parameter of importance in the definition of a spray is
meteorology. Numerous spray devices have been devel- the distribution of drop sizes it contains. The various
oped, and they are generally designated as atomizers or mathematical and empirical relationships that are used
nozzles. to characterize the distribution of drop sizes in a spray
As is evident from the aforementioned applications, are described in Chapter 3.
the subject of atomization is wide ranging and impor- In Chapter 4, the performance requirements and
tant. During the past decade, there has been a tremen- basic design features of the main types of atomizers in
dous expansion of interest in the science and technology industrial and laboratory use are described. Primary
of atomization, which has now developed into a major emphasis is placed on the atomizers employed in indus-
international and interdisciplinary field of research. trial cleaning, spray cooling, and spray drying, which,
This growth of interest has been accompanied by large along with liquid fuel–fired combustion, are their most
strides in the areas of laser diagnostics for spray anal- important applications.
ysis and in a proliferation of mathematical models for Chapter 5 is devoted primarily to the internal flow
spray combustion processes. It is becoming increasingly characteristics of plain-orifice and pressure-swirl atom-
important for engineers to acquire a better understand- izers, but consideration is also given to the complex flow
ing of the basic atomization process and to be fully con- situations that arise on the surface of a rotating cup or
versant with the capabilities and limitations of all the disk. These flow characteristics are important because
relevant atomization devices. In particular, it is impor- they govern the quality of atomization and the distribu-
tant to know which type of atomizer is best suited for tion of drop sizes in the spray.
any given application and how the performance of any Atomization quality is usually described in terms
given atomizer is affected by variations in liquid prop- of a mean drop size. Because the physical processes
erties and operating conditions. involved in atomization are not well understood, empir-
This book owes its inception to a highly successful ical equations have been developed for expressing the
short course on atomization and sprays held at Carnegie mean drop size in a spray in terms of liquid properties,
Mellon University in April 1986 under the direction of gas properties, flow conditions, and atomizer dimen-
Professor Norman Chigier. As an invited lecturer to this sions. The equations selected for inclusion in Chapter
course, my task was by no means easy because most of 6 are considered to be the best available for the types of
the relevant information on atomization is dispersed atomizers described in Chapter 4.
throughout a wide variety of journal articles and con- The function of an atomizer is not only to disintegrate
ference proceedings. A fairly thorough survey of this a bulk liquid into small drops, but also to discharge
literature culminated in the preparation of extensive these drops into the surrounding gas in the form of a
course notes. The enthusiastic response accorded to this symmetrical, uniform spray. The spray characteristics
course encouraged me to expand these notes into this of most practical importance are discussed in Chapter 7.
book, which will serve many purposes, including those They include cone angle, penetration, radial liquid dis-
of text, design manual, and research reference in the tribution, and circumferential liquid distribution.
areas of atomization and sprays. Although evaporation processes are not intrinsic
The book begins with a general review of atomizer to the subject of atomization and sprays, it cannot be
types and their applications, in Chapter 1. This chap- overlooked that in many applications the primary pur-
ter also includes a glossary of terms in widespread pose of atomization is to increase the surface area of
use throughout the atomization literature. Chapter 2 the liquid and thereby enhance its rate of evaporation.
provides a detailed introduction to the various mecha- In Chapter 8, attention is focused on the evaporation of
nisms of liquid particle breakup and to the manner in fuel drops over wide ranges of ambient gas pressures

xiii
xiv Preface to the First Edition

and temperatures. Consideration is given to both Hannifin Corporation, and Roger Tate of Delavan
steady-state and unsteady-state evaporation. The con- Incorporated. I am also deeply indebted to my gradu-
cept of an effective evaporation constant is introduced, ate students in the School of Mechanical Engineering
which is shown to greatly facilitate the calculation of at Cranfield and the Gas Turbine Combustion
evaporation rates and drop lifetimes for liquid hydro- Laboratory at Purdue. They have made significant
carbon fuels. contributions to this book through their research, and
The spray patterns produced by most practical atom- their names appear throughout the text and in the lists
izers are so complex that fairly precise measurements of references.
of drop-size distributions can be obtained only if accu- Professor Norman Chigier has been an enthusiastic
rate and reliable instrumentation and data reduction supporter in the writing of this book. Other friends and
procedures are combined with a sound appreciation colleagues have kindly used their expert knowledge
of their useful limits of application. In Chapter 9, the in reviewing and commenting on individual chapters,
various methods employed in drop-size measurement especially Chapter 9, which covers an area that in recent
are reviewed. Primary emphasis is placed on optical years has become the subject of fairly intense research
methods that have the important advantage of allow- and development. They include Dr. Will Bachalo of
ing size measurements to be made without the insertion Aerometrics, Inc., Dr. Lee Dodge of Southwest Research
of a physical probe into the spray. For ensemble mea- Institute, Dr. Patricia Meyer of Insitec, and Professor
surements, the light diffraction method has much to Arthur Sterling of Louisiana State University. In the task
commend it and is now in widespread use as a general of proofreading, I have been ably assisted by Professor
purpose tool for spray analysis. Of the remaining meth- Norman Chigier, Professor Ju Shan Chin, and my grad-
ods discussed, the advanced optical techniques have uate student Jeff Whitlow—their help is hereby grate-
the capability of measuring drop velocity and number fully acknowledged.
density as well as size distribution. I am much indebted to Betty Gick and Angie Myers
Much of the material covered in this book is based for their skillful typing of the manuscript and to Mark
on knowledge acquired during my work on atom- Bass for the high-quality artwork he provided for this
izer design and performance over the past 30 years. book. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Sally, for
However, the reader will observe that I have not hesi- her encouragement and support during my undertak-
tated in drawing on the considerable practical experi- ing of this time-consuming but enjoyable task.
ence of my industrial colleagues, notably Ted Koblish
of Fuel Systems TEXTRON, Hal Simmons of the Parker Arthur H. Lefebvre
Authors

Arthur H. Lefebvre (1923–2003) was Emeritus Professor Vincent G. McDonell is an associate director of the UCI
at Purdue University. With industrial and academic Combustion Laboratory at the University of California,
experience spanning more than four decades, he wrote Irvine, where he also serves as an adjunct professor in the
more than 150 technical papers on both fundamental Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department.
and practical aspects of atomization and combustion. He earned a PhD at the University of California, Irvine
The honors he received include the ASME Gas Turbine in 1990 and has served on the executive committees of
and ASME R. Tom Sawyer Awards, ASME George ILASS-Americas and ICLASS International. He has won
Westinghouse Gold Medal, and the IGTI Scholar Award. best paper awards from ILASS-Americas and ASME for
He was also the first recipient of the AIAA Propellants work on atomization. He has done extensive research in
and Combustion Award. the areas of atomization and combustion, holds a patent
in the area, and has authored or coauthored more than
150 papers in the field.

xv
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