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 Handbook of

ECOTOXICOLOGY
Second Edition
Edited by
David J. Hoffman
Barnett A. Rattner
G. Allen Burton, Jr.
John Cairns, Jr.

LEWIS PUBLISHERS
A CRC Press Company
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
 Handbook of

ECOTOXICOLOGY
Second Edition
Edited by
David J. Hoffman
Barnett A. Rattner
G. Allen Burton, Jr.
John Cairns, Jr.

LEWIS PUBLISHERS
A CRC Press Company
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
L1546_frame_FM Page 2 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM

Cover photograph of the California red-legged frog courtesy of Gary Fellers, U.S. Geological Survey.

Cover photograph of the American alligator courtesy of Heath Rauschenberger, U.S. Geological Survey.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of ecotoxicology / David J. Hoffman … [et al.] — 2nd ed.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56670-546-0 (alk. paper)
1. Environmental toxicology. I. Hoffman, David J. (David John), 1944-

RA1226 .H36 2002

615.9'02—dc21 2002075228

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.

All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific
clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright clearance
Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is
ISBN 1-56670-546-0/03/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted
a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
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Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

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Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC

Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 1-56670-546-0
Library of Congress Card Number 2002075228
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
L1546_frame_FM Page 3 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM

Preface
The first edition of this book, a bestseller for Lewis Publishers/CRC Press, evolved from a series
of articles on ecotoxicology authored by the editors and published in the journal Environmental
Science and Technology. Ecotoxicology remains a rapidly growing field, with many components
periodically being redefined or open to further interpretation. Therefore, this second edition of the
Handbook of Ecotoxicology has expanded considerably in both concept and content over the first
edition. The second edition contains 45 chapters with contributions from over 75 international
experts. Eighteen new chapters have been introduced, and the original chapters have been substan-
tially revised and updated. All of the content has been reviewed by a board of experts.
This edition is divided into five major sections: I. Quantifying and Measuring Ecotoxicological
Effects, II. Contaminant Sources and Effects, III. Case Histories and Ecosystem Surveys, IV.
Methods for Making Estimates, Predictability, and Risk Assessment in Ecotoxicology, and V.
Special Issues in Ecotoxicology. In the first section, concepts and current methodologies for testing
are provided for aquatic toxicology, wildlife toxicology, sediment toxicity, soil ecotoxicology, algal
and plant toxicity, and landscape ecotoxicology. Biomonitoring programs and current use of bio-
indicators for aquatic and terrestrial monitoring are described. The second section contains chapters
on major environmental contaminants and other anthropogenic processes capable of disrupting
ecosystems including pesticides, petroleum and PAHs, heavy metals, selenium, polyhalogenated
aromatic hydrocarbons, urban runoff, nuclear and thermal contamination, global effects of defor-
estation, pathogens and disease, and abiotic factors that interact with contaminants.
In order to illustrate the full impact of different environmental contaminants on diverse ecosys-
tems, seven case histories and ecosystem surveys are described in the third section. The fourth
section discusses methods and approaches used for estimating and predicting exposure and effects
for purposes of risk assessment. These include global disposition of contaminants, bioaccumulation
and bioconcentration, use of quantitative structure activity relationships (QSARs), population mod-
eling, current guidelines and future directions for ecological risk assessment, and restoration ecology.
The fifth section of this book identifies and describes a number of new and significant issues in
ecotoxicology, most of which have come to the forefront of the field since the publication of the
first edition. These include endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the environment, the possible role of
contaminants in the worldwide decline of amphibian populations, potential genetic effects of con-
taminants on animal populations, the role of ecotoxicology in industrial ecology and natural capi-
talism, the consequences of indirect effects of agricultural pesticides on wildlife, the role of nutrition
on trace element toxicity, and the role of environmental contaminants on endangered species.
This edition was designed to serve as a reference book for students entering the fields of
ecotoxicology and other environmental sciences. Many portions of this handbook will serve as a
convenient reference text for established investigators, resource managers, and those involved in
risk assessment and management within regulatory agencies and the private sector.

David J. Hoffman
Barnett A. Rattner
G. Allen Burton, Jr.
John Cairns, Jr.
L1546_frame_FM Page 4 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM
L1546_frame_FM Page 5 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 11:52 AM

The Editors

David J. Hoffman
David J. Hoffman is a research physiologist in the field of envi-
ronmental contaminants at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center,
U.S. Geological Survey of the Department of the Interior. He is also
an Adjunct Professor in the Department of Biology, University of
Maryland at Frostburg. Dr. Hoffman earned a Bachelor of Science
degree in Zoology from McGill University in 1966 and his Doctor
of Philosophy Degree in Zoology (developmental physiology) from
the University of Maryland in 1971. He was an NIH Postdoctoral
Fellow in the Biochemistry Section of Oak Ridge National Labo-
ratory from 1971 to 1973. Other positions included teaching at
Boston College during 1974 and research as a Senior Staff Physi-
ologist with the Health Effects Research Laboratory of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
in Cincinnati from 1974 to 1976 before joining the Environmental Contaminants Evaluation Pro-
gram of the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center.
Dr. Hoffman’s research over the past 20 years has focused on morphological and biochemical
effects of environmental contaminants including bioindicators of developmental toxicity in birds
in the laboratory and in natural ecosystems. Key areas of study have included sublethal indicators
of exposure to planar PCBs, lead, selenium, and mercury; embryotoxicity and teratogenicity of
pesticides and petroleum to birds and impact on nestlings; interactive toxicant and nutritional factors
affecting agricultural drainwater and heavy-metal toxicity; and measurements of oxidative stress
for monitoring contaminant exposure in wildlife.
Dr. Hoffman has published over 120 scientific papers including book chapters and review papers
and has served on eight editorial boards.

Barnett A. Rattner
Barnett A. Rattner is a research physiologist at the Patuxent Wildlife
Research Center, U.S. Geological Survey of the Department of the
Interior. He is also Adjunct Professor of the Department of Animal
and Avian Science Sciences, University of Maryland. Dr. Rattner
attended the University of Maryland, earning his Doctor of Philosophy
degree in 1977. He was a National Research Council Postdoctoral
Associate at the Naval Medical Research Institute in 1978 before
joining the Environmental Contaminants Evaluation Program of the
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center.
Dr. Rattner’s research activities during the past 20 years have
included evaluation of sublethal biochemical, endocrine, and phys-
iological responses of wildlife to petroleum crude oil, various pesticides, industrial contaminants,
and metals. He has investigated the interactive effects of natural stressors and toxic environmental
pollutants, developed and applied cytochrome P450 assays as a biomarker of contaminant exposure,
conducted risk assessments on potential substitutes for lead shot used in hunting, and compiled
several large World Wide Web-accessible ecotoxicological databases for terrestrial vertebrates.
Dr. Rattner has published over 65 scientific articles and serves on four editorial boards and
several federal committees including the Toxic Substances Control Act Interagency Testing Com-
mittee of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
L1546_frame_FM Page 6 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 11:52 AM

G. Allen Burton, Jr.

G. Allen Burton, Jr. is the Brage Golding Distinguished Professor
of Research and Director of the Institute for Environmental Quality
at Wright State University. He earned a Ph.D. degree in Environ-
mental Science from the University of Texas at Dallas in 1984. From
1980 until 1985 he was a Life Scientist with the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. He was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Cooperative Institute for
Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado.
Since then he has had positions as a NATO Senior Research Fellow
in Portugal and Visiting Senior Scientist in Italy and New Zealand.
Dr. Burton’s research during the past 20 years has focused on
developing effective methods for identifying significant effects and
stressors in aquatic systems where sediment and stormwater con-
tamination is a concern. His ecosystem risk assessments have eval-
uated multiple levels of biological organization, ranging from
microbial to amphibian effects. He has been active in the development and standardization of
toxicity methods for the U.S. EPA, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Environ-
ment Canada, and the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Dr.
Burton has served on numerous national and international scientific committees and review panels
and has had over $4 million in grants and contracts and more than 100 publications dealing with
aquatic systems.

John Cairns, Jr.

John Cairns, Jr. is University Distinguished Professor of Environ-
mental Biology Emeritus in the Department of Biology at Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia.
His professional career includes 18 years as Curator of Limnology
at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 2 years at the
University of Kansas, and over 34 years at his present institution.
He has also taught periodically at various field stations.
Among his honors are Member, National Academy of Sciences;
Member, American Philosophical Society; Fellow, American Acad-
emy of Arts and Sciences; Fellow, American Association for the
Advancement of Science; the Founder’s Award of the Society for
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry; the United Nations Envi-
ronmental Programme Medal; Fellow, Association for Women in
Science; U.S. Presidential Commendation for Environmental Activities; the Icko Iben Award for
Interdisciplinary Activities from the American Water Resources Association; Phi Beta Kappa; the
B. Y. Morrison Medal (awarded at the Pacific Rim Conference of the American Chemical Society);
Distinguished Service Award, American Institute of Biological Sciences; Superior Achievement
Award, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; the Charles B. Dudley Award for excellence in
publications from the American Society for Testing and Materials; the Life Achievement Award in
Science from the Commonwealth of Virginia and the Science Museum of Virginia; the American
Fisheries Society Award of Excellence; Doctor of Science, State University of New York at Bing-
hamton; Fellow, Virginia Academy of Sciences; Fellow, Eco-Ethics International Union; Twentieth
Century Distinguished Service Award, Ninth Lukacs Symposium; 2001 Ruth Patrick Award for
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L1546_frame_FM Page 7 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM

Environmental Problem Solving, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography; 2001 Sus-
tained Achievement Award, Renewable Natural Resources Foundation, 2001.
Professor Cairns has served as both vice president and president of the American Microscopical
Society, has served on 18 National Research Council committees (two as chair), is presently serving
on 14 editorial boards, and has served on the Science Advisory Board of the International Joint
Commission (United States and Canada) and on the U.S. EPA Science Advisory Board. The most
recent of his 57 books are Goals and Conditions for a Sustainable Planet, 2002 and the Japanese
edition of Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and Public Policy, 1999.
L1546_frame_FM Page 8 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM
L1546_frame_FM Page 9 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM

REVIEW BOARD
Handbook of Ecotoxicology 2nd Edition
Dr. Christine A. Bishop Dr. James M. Lazorchak
Environment Canada U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Canadian Wildlife Service Cincinnati, Ohio
Delta, British Columbia
Canada Dr. Pierre Mineau
Environment Canada
Dr. Michael P. Dieter
Canadian Wildlife Service
National Institute of Environmental Health
Hull, PQ
Sciences
Canada
National Toxicology Program
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Dr. James T. Oris
Dr. Richard T. Di Giulio Department of Zoology
Duke University Miami University
Nicholas School of the Environment Oxford, Ohio
Durham, North Carolina
Dr. James R. Pratt
Dr. Crystal J. Driver
Portland State University
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Department of Biology
Environmental Sciences
Portland, Oregon
Richland, Washington

Dr. John E. Elliott Dr. Robert Ringer

Environment Canada Michigan State University
Canadian Wildlife Service Institute of Environmental Toxicology
Delta, British Columbia Traverse City, Michigan
Canada
Dr. John B. Sprague
Dr. Anne Fairbrother
Sprague Associates, Ltd.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Salt Spring Island, British Columbia
Western Ecology Division/NHEEL
Canada
Ecosystem Characterization Branch
Corvallis, Oregon
Dr. Donald Tillitt
Dr. John P. Giesy U.S. Geological Survey
Department of Zoology Columbia Environmental Research Center
Michigan State University Columbia, Missouri
East Lansing, Michigan
Dr. Donald J. Versteeg
Dr. Gary H. Heinz
The Procter & Gamble Company
U.S. Geological Survey
Environmental Science Department
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
Laurel, Maryland

Dr. Christopher G. Ingersoll Dr. William T. Waller

U.S. Geological Survey University of North Texas
Columbia Environmental Research Center Institute of Applied Sciences
Columbia, Missouri Denton, Texas
L1546_frame_FM Page 10 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM
L1546_frame_FM Page 11 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM

Contributors
William J. Adams Amy M. Bickham
Rio Tinto Corporation Texas Tech University
Murray, Utah Lubbock, Texas

Peter H. Albers John W. Bickham

U.S. Geological Survey Texas A & M University
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center College Station, Texas
Laurel, Maryland
Lynn Blake-Hedges
Patrick J. Anderson U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Geological Survey Office of Pesticides, Prevention and Toxic
Mid-Continent Ecological Center Substances
Fort Collins, Colorado Washington, D.C.
Andrew S. Archuleta
Lawrence J. Blus
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Geological Survey
Colorado Field Office
Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science
Denver, Colorado
Center
Corvallis, Oregon
Beverly S. Arnold
U.S. Geological Survey
Florida Caribbean Science Center Dixie L. Bounds
Gainesville, Florida U.S. Geological Survey
Maryland Cooperative Fish and Wildlife
Pinar Balci Research Unit
University of North Texas Princess Anne, Maryland
Institute of Applied Sciences
Denton, Texas Robert P. Breckenridge
Idaho National Engineering and Environmental
Mace G. Barron Laboratory
P.E.A.K. Research Ecological and Cultural Resources
Longmont, Colorado Idaho Falls, Idaho

Timothy M. Bartish G. Allen Burton, Jr.

U.S. Geological Survey Wright State University
Mid-Continent Ecological Center Institute for Environmental Quality
Fort Collins, Colorado Dayton, Ohio

Sally M. Benson Earl R. Byron

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory CH2M HILL
Berkeley, California Sacramento, California

W. Nelson Beyer John Cairns, Jr.

U.S. Geological Survey Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center University
Laurel, Maryland Blacksburg, Virginia
L1546_frame_FM Page 12 Wednesday, September 25, 2002 8:50 AM

Patricia A. Cirone Stuart Harrad

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency University of Birmingham
Seattle, Washington School of Geography & Environmental
Science
Laura C. Coppock Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Denver, Colorado Roy M. Harrison
University of Birmingham
School of Geography & Environmental
Christine M. Custer
Science
U.S. Geological Survey
Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center
La Crosse, Wisconsin
Alan G. Heath
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
Thomas W. Custer University
U.S. Geological Survey Blacksburg, Virginia
Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center
La Crosse, Wisconsin Gary H. Heinz
U.S. Geological Survey
Michael Delamore Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Laurel, Maryland
Fresno, California
Gray Henderson
Debra L. Denton University of Missouri
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Columbia, Missouri
Division of Water Quality
Sacramento, California Charles J. Henny
U.S. Geological Survey
Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science
Ronald Eisler
Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Corvallis, Oregon
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
Laurel, Maryland
Elwood F. Hill
U.S. Geological Survey
Valerie L. Fellows Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Laurel, Maryland
Annapolis, Maryland
Kay Ho
George F. Fries U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Department of Agriculture Atlantic Ecology Division
Beltsville, Maryland Narragansett, Rhode Island

Timothy S. Gross David J. Hoffman

U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey
Florida Caribbean Science Center Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
Gainesville, Florida Laurel, Maryland

Steven J. Hamilton Karen D. Holl

U.S. Geological Survey University of California
Columbia Environmental Research Center Department of Environmental Studies
Yankton, South Dakota Santa Cruz, California
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