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Handbook of Pig Medicine 1st Edition Peter Gg Jackson
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Peter GG Jackson, BVM&S MA DVM&S FRCVS, and Peter D
Cockcroft, MA MSc VetMB DCHP DipECBHM DVM&S MRCVS (Auth.)
ISBN(s): 9780702028281, 0702028282
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 34.73 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
© Elsevier Limited 2007. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the Publishers. Permissions may be sought directly from
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‘Copyright and Permission’.

First published 2007

ISBN 978 0 7020 2828 1

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

Notice
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our knowledge, changes in practice, treatment and drug therapy may
become necessary or appropriate. Readers are advised to check the most current information
provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be
administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of
administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of the practitioner, relying on
their own experience and knowledge of the patient, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages
and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety
precautions. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the Authors assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising out or related to any use
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Dedication

This book is dedicated to our families.

ix
Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the many people who have helped A number of colleagues and groups have allowed us to
us during the preparation of this book. Our families and quote from their work and to use their tables. Peter Brown
friends have provided us with the constant support and Ann Davis kindly allowed us to reproduce their paper
required to facilitate our writing. Although many of the ‘A review of the economic effects of disease on pig perfor-
photographs in the book were taken by the authors a mance’. We are also pleased to acknowledge the help of
number of people have kindly allowed us to use their the following: John Carr, Tom Alexander and the late
photographs. Individuals who have helped us with photo- Mike Muirhead, the British Pig Executive (BPEX), Pig
graphs include: Roger Blowey, the late Peter Bridge, David CHAMP, the Department of Environment, Food and
Chennells, Tom Clark, Ian Dennis, Stan Done, John Rural Affairs (Defra), the Department of Primary Indus-
Mackinnon, Karin Mueller, the late Alex Noble, the late tries (Victoria, Australia), the National Office of Animal
Richard Potter, Geoff Pritchard, David Strachan, Jill Health (NOAH), The Pig Veterinary Society (PVS), the
Thomson and Jake Waddilove. We would also like to University of Minnesota, the Veterinary Laboratories
thank Merial for the use of images from their publication Agency (VLA), the Western College of Veterinary Medi-
Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome: A New cine, Saskatoon. Andrew Gresham and Mark White have
Emerging Disease of Swine (16th IPVS Congress, Mel- also given us helpful advice.
bourne, 2000). Despite strenuous efforts we have been We would also like to thank Joyce Rodenhuis, Rita
unable to ascertain the origin of some of the photographs Demetriou-Swanwick and Glenys Norquay of Elsevier Ltd
in our collection. We apologise very sincerely for any for their help guidance and encouragement at all stages of
omissions from this list of acknowledgements and would the production of this book.
be grateful if anyone whose name has been accidentally
omitted would kindly let us know.

x
Preface

Unprecedented changes have taken place in the pig indus- appeared which resulted in the death of most animals that
try during the past forty years. These changes have been were affected below the age of 14 days. TGE was the fi rst
accompanied by the arrival of a number of new diseases, of a number of new and serious diseases that affected pigs
some caused by previously unrecognised agents and others causing severe losses.
predisposed by changes in husbandry. The veterinary A reduction in the profitability of individual pigs
profession has been heavily involved in investigating resulted in larger numbers being kept on individual farms.
and recognising these new conditions and attempting to Sow stalls and cubicles were introduced which allowed
remedy the problems caused. The profession has and must fewer stockpersons to be employed. Intensive production
continue to work closely with the industry to ensure that methods resulted in a higher incidence of stress and
the welfare and productivity of pigs is at the highest levels. disease. Batch farrowing was practised and piglets were
It is not only important to investigate and deal with mixed and transferred to flat deck weaner pools. The
disease problems. The profession must take a lead in pro- paucity of stockpersons often resulted in pigs not receiv-
moting herd health, welfare and biosecurity to provide an ing veterinary attention until serious losses of life and
increasingly demanding consumer with the highest quality production had occurred. Farmers were tempted to try
pig meat. Outdoor breeding and organic pig production ‘do-it-yourself’ methods to reduce their veterinary costs.
have presented further challenges. The popularity of pet In many cases incorrect diagnoses were made or courses
or fancy pigs has brought about a revival in the manage- of treatment were either inappropriate or were not com-
ment and care of the individual pig. It is hoped that this pleted. The incidence of diseases such as sarcoptic mange
book will provide the veterinary student, veterinary increased and the spread of this disease was exacerbated
surgeon and others interested in pigs with a guide to the by intensive husbandry. In the struggle to improve profit-
problems facing the industry. ability, hybrid pigs were produced which combined the
In the 1960s a large herd of pigs might have consisted best features of the traditional breeds. Litter size and
of 100 sows and such a herd might have been in the growth rates were the production parameters that were
care of two stockpersons. Many people kept a small increased. Efforts were made to control disease in elite
number of pigs in their gardens or allotments. Pig keeping herds by better biosecurity. In many cases, despite better
was a profitable enterprise and veterinary surgeons were production parameters, natural resistance to disease did
frequently called to treat individual sick pigs. The profit not improve.
margin on each animal allowed an individual pig to be Perhaps almost inevitably other important pig diseases
revisited and treated until it was restored to normal health. appeared. One of the fi rst ‘new diseases’ was swine dys-
Classical swine fever was endemic and anthrax was entery which was seen after the withdrawal of tylosin as
encountered from time to time. a growth promoter. It is possible that the widespread use
Piglets were weaned at 6–8 weeks of age. Most male of tylosin masked the presence of swine dysentery. Porcine
pigs were castrated and the spaying of females had recently parvovirus was recognised as an important cause of abor-
ceased. Crystal violet vaccine, which gave some protec- tion in pigs. Porcine reproductive and respiratory disease
tion against swine fever, and an effective swine erysipelas (PRRS) was identified and spread quickly in many coun-
vaccine were used routinely in many herds. Enzootic tries. The viral cause proved difficult to identify and much
pneumonia, then erroneously termed ‘virus pneumonia’, damage was done before an effective vaccine could be
was widespread, causing reduced food conversion and produced. Outbreaks of the notifiable diseases classical
additional days were needed to achieve pork or bacon swine stfever and foot and mouth disease at the start of
weight on many farms. There was no vaccine against the 21 century caused additional problems to the pig
enzootic pneumonia and control was attempted by industry.
improving ventilation and including initially chlortetracy- Two new diseases have been recognised in the past 10
cline and later tylosin in the diet. Neonatal and post years – porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome
weaning enteritis were quite frequently seen, with E. coli (PDNS) and porcine multisystemic wasting syndrome
being identified (often by the then free Veterinary Inves- (PMWS) – and caused serious losses in the industry.
tigation Service) as the cause in most cases. A new disease, Both diseases have been shown to be associated with
transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE), affecting pigs of ages porcine circovirus-2, but other causal factors have yet to

xi
PREFACE

be identified. PMWS in particular has caused heavy loss In Chapter 12, the special problems of outdoor and
of life and devastating production losses. The disease has organic pigs are discussed. The pet pig is considered in
been shown to respond poorly to symptomatic treatment. Chapter 13 and antimicrobial therapeutics are dealt with
The worst effects of the disease can however be minimised in Chapter 14. Surgical procedures including anaesthesia
by improving husbandry and by reducing stress and and analgesia are described in Chapter 15.
increasing comfort. The importance of more traditional Post mortem examination is an important aid to the
care and management has been clearly demonstrated. diagnosis of pig diseases. Post mortem technique is
The major challenges facing the pig industry have for- described in detail in Chapter 16, together with techniques
tunately been accompanied by major developments in pig for sampling and euthanasia. Chapter 17 contains details
science. New diagnostic techniques have facilitated diag- of the haematology and biochemistry of the pig, and the
nosis. New vaccines and new therapeutic regimes have important subject of differential diagnosis is discussed in
added to our ability to prevent and treat disease. Chapter 18.
This book has been written to provide as much infor- There are currently about 5 million pigs in the UK. 1.5
mation about pig health and disease as possible in a reader million tonnes of pig meat is consumed annually in the
friendly style. All sections of the book are illustrated UK with half of this amount being imported. A recent
where appropriate, mostly with coloured photographs. manpower study by the RCVS showed that only 0.4%
The fi rst chapter deals with the investigation of clinical of veterinary time is spent working with pigs. Much
problems on pig farms. A good clinical examination is an consultative work is done by specialists and pig courses in
essential part of any investigation of disease. Although the veterinary schools have been shortened. It is very impor-
pig is not the easiest animal to examine, with care and tant that more veterinarians become skilled in the diag-
skill a full and detailed examination can be performed. nosis and treatment of pig disease. The professions must
The adage ‘mistakes are made by not looking rather than remain fully involved with the industry to ensure that pigs
not knowing’ is as important in the pig as in other species. receive the highest standard of veterinary care. Veterinary
The importance of herd health along with care of the surgeons must remain at the forefront of national and
individual has already been stressed. The second chapter international disease control and ensuring the welfare,
of the book deals with herd health including herd health herd health and productivity are maintained at high
plans and consumer assurance schemes. levels.
Chapters 4–11 deal with diseases of the various body It is hoped that this book will provide all the informa-
systems. In each chapter the aetiology, incidence and epi- tion required by those who are involved in the examina-
demiology of specific diseases are described. Clinical tion and treatment of that fascinating animal the pig.
examination is described with special reference to that
body system. Consideration of the treatment and control PGGJ Cambridge 2007
of each disease is described. PDC

xii
 1
Investigation of clinical problems
on pig farms

Introduction ● sterile containers for samples,

● swabs,
The purpose of the clinical investigation is to identify the ● equipment for post-mortem examination,
clinical abnormalities that are present and the risk factors ● injectable medication for sick pigs,
that determine the occurrence of the disease in the indi- ● tape measure or a laser measure,
vidual or population. From this information, the most ● torch, and
likely cause can be determined and the risk factors identi- ● water or food medication for in-contact pigs.
fied. In addition, the organs or systems involved, the loca-
tion, the type of lesion present, the pathophysiological
processes occurring, the severity of the disease, and the Components of the clinical examination
epidemiology of the outbreak may be deduced. The inves-
tigation may involve subclinical disease where a problem The clinical investigation and diagnosis in the pig may
may have been identified from substandard performance include some or all of the following steps:
indices such as growth rates, food conversion efficiency, ● owner’s complaint,
and litter size. In this case, the investigation may begin ● history of the unit (this may include analysis of
with a detailed analysis of farm records to characterize records),
the qualitative and quantitative nature of the substandard ● history of the patient,
performance. The chronicity, the groups affected, and ● signalment of the patient,
the progression of the problem may be revealed by the ● environment of the patient,
records. ● observation of the patient and its group,
Individual animals that are sick or not doing well should ● restraint of affected individual animals,
be removed from the group and put into hospital accom- ● physical examination of the patient (post-mortem
modation for nursing until they have recovered or a deci- examination is sometimes performed at this stage),
sion has been taken to euthanize the animals. Mixing ● provisional or tentative diagnosis (treatment, control,
groups of animals or splitting a group can result in fight- and prevention programmes may be initiated at this
ing and a severe setback of up to a week until a new stable stage),
dominance hierarchy is established. Great care is there- ● further investigations,
fore needed when reintroducing an animal. There is a ● defi nitive diagnosis,
temptation to reintroduce the recovered animals or poor ● treatment and response to treatment,
doer to a younger group of piglets. The disease implica- ● control and prevention programme.
tions of this should be considered very carefully. Rearing
recovered animals or poor doers as a separate group is
History of the unit
ideal although may not be practical or economical. Eutha-
nasia may be the most realistic option. The following details should be ascertained by interview
When examining individual pigs, careful consideration and from the farm records.
should be given to minimizing the restraint required while ● Number and category of pigs on the unit.
ensuring the operator’s safety (Figs 1.1 and 1.2). ● Production details: breeding, fi nishing unit?
● Indoor or outdoor?
● Nucleus, multiplier, or commercial?
Equipment required ● Disease-free status (the term disease-free may indicate
freedom from a variable number of specified
When visiting a pig unit, the clinician must make sure that diseases).
the following equipment is available: ● Flow of animals through the unit.
● clean protective clothing and footwear, ● Farm assurance scheme in operation?
● approved disinfectant and foot brush, ● Current veterinary health plan.
● thermometer and stethoscope, ● Vaccination programmes.

1
CHAPTER 1 INVESTIGATION OF CLINICAL PROBLEMS ON PIG FARMS

● Farm herd health plan (vaccination, anthelmintics,

management protocols).
● Previous disease problems on this farm or in these
pigs.
● Number of pigs affected (morbidity) and number of
deaths (mortality).
● Groups affected.
● Age of animal affected.
● Signs of ill health observed by the owner or
stockperson.
● Duration of problem.
● Progression of disease.
● Details of other sick pigs on the unit.
Fig 1.1 – Whenever possible, pigs should be examined quietly and
● Origin of affected pigs (homebred or purchased?). If
with minimum restraint. purchased:
– date of purchase, and
– health status of unit of origin.
● Treatment already given by stockperson.
– Response to such treatment.
● Recent changes in diet.
● Recent changes of staff.
● Recent interruption of water and power supplies.
● Availability of carcasses for post-mortem
examination.

Signalment of the pig(s)

The age, sex, and breed of the pigs may influence the
likelihood of a diagnosis. Swine erysipelas is rarely seen
in pigs under the age of 16 weeks. Swine dysentery is
mostly seen in pigs aged 8–16 weeks. Enteric colibacillosis
is seen mostly in piglets aged less than 3 weeks; it may
Fig 1.2 – A more detailed chest auscultation is possible in a quiet
sow restrained by a farrowing crate.
occur in weaners but is rarely seen in adults.

The pigs’ environment

● Ecto- and endoparasite control programmes. The availability of food, water, and protection against
● Routine medication. extremes of weather is essential for good health to be
● Biosecurity protocols. maintained. These facilities should be readily accessible
● Production figures for the unit: targets and whether to the number of pigs being accommodated. The environ-
or not they were achieved. ment should also be secure and have handling facilities.
● Reports from previous farm visits. Poor ventilation affects the incidence of respiratory
● Abattoir feedback reports. disease. A high incidence of lameness may be associated
● Previous and current diseases. with poorly maintained flooring. Faeces scattered all over
● Feeding system used. the floor may indicate diarrhoea or overcrowding. The
● Nutritional history of affected group(s). following parameters should be assessed when looking at
● Breeding policies. the environment.
● Pig flow plan for the unit (pig movement through the
The indoor environment:
unit).
● ambient temperature,
● Recent movements of pigs (movements book).
● light,
● ventilation,
History of the sick pig(s)
● stocking density,
The following details should be obtained from the best- ● flooring,
informed person, which in most cases is the farm manager ● bedding,
or the stockperson. This information is usually very ● cleanliness,
important in formulating differential diagnoses. ● state of repair of fitments,

2
 COMPONENTS OF THE CLINICAL EXAMINATION

● faeces, and ears droop or are held flat against the head. The curl
● abnormal discharges (including blood and vomitus). in the tail may be lost, and they tend to ‘bury themselves’
in the straw. They may have a dull and depressed
The outdoor environment (Fig. 1.3):
demeanour.
● freedom from hazards,
Dirty pigs may indicate that the animals are too hot
● availability of wallows,
and have been wallowing or lying in the dunging area,
● shelter from extremes of weather, and
are overstocked, are in an environment that is not cleaned
● accessibility of other livestock.
out regularly enough with replacement of fresh straw, or
have an enteric diarrhoeic problem. Queuing at nipple
Observation of the pig(s) drinkers indicates a problem with the provision of
General observations water. Lying patterns may indicate if the pigs are too hot
Growing pigs spend a lot of their time sleeping and (spread out) or too cold (huddled). Observation of the
huddled together. If disturbed, the pigs wake rapidly, patient both at rest and in locomotion is usually extremely
often make a barking noise, and then run to the far corner rewarding. Healthy pigs are bright, alert, and reactive.
of their pen. Fear is then replaced by interest, and the pigs Any pig lying away from the main group or behaving
approach the clinician cautiously and may start to nibble abnormally may be ill. Care should be taken not to
boots or overalls (Fig. 1.4). They are naturally inquisitive overlook individual sick pigs that are often lying down
animals. in the straw bedding out of sight in creep boxes or hutches.
Sick pigs may be too ill to take part in normal activities This often means entering the pen and inspecting
and may be knocked over by their pen mates. Their the covered areas. Once in the pen, it is then possible
to ‘stir up the group’ so that signs of disease such as
lameness, coughing, and dyspnoea may become more
pronounced.
Uneven condition scores in groups of piglets, weaners,
and fi nishing pigs may indicate the presence of disease or
insufficient creep or trough space. Inappropriate or rapid
changes in the condition scores of the sows should be
investigated. Sows in the dry sow yard should be moni-
tored for presence of the thin sow syndrome and pressure
sores from the farrowing crates. Individual sick pigs may
be in poor condition and have an empty, gaunt appear-
ance. Such pigs may be too ill to take part in normal
activities and may be knocked over by the movements of
other pigs. Damage caused by vices such as tail biting,
flank sucking, or ear biting may be seen.

Fig 1.3 – Sows in an outdoor unit. Abnormalities of body shape

Abdominal distension is relatively uncommon in pigs.
Causes include peritonitis, ascites, and rectal stricture.
Gaunt pigs with hollow sides are often a sign of intestinal
disease.
Deviation of the snout is seen in some cases of atrophic
rhinitis. Localized swellings in muscles may be associated
with the porcine stress syndrome, injury, or vitamin E or
selenium deficiency. Runt pigs are easily identified; they
have a large head relative to the body and are small for
their age. They are hairy and thin.

Abnormal swellings on the body surface

Scrotal and umbilical hernias are quite frequently seen in
pigs. Subcutaneous abscesses and haematomata are fre-
quently seen and are often caused by fighting or other
superficial injuries. In boars, a swelling in the prepucial
region may be caused by distension of the prepucial
Fig 1.4 – Pigs cautiously approaching the clinician. diverticulum.

3
CHAPTER 1 INVESTIGATION OF CLINICAL PROBLEMS ON PIG FARMS

Abnormalities of the skin in animals with painful digital abscesses. Swelling of the
Pruritus is seen in a number of skin diseases. The most joints is associated with acute or chronic arthritis. Disuse
common cause is sarcoptic mange, which can affect of the affected limb may result in muscle atrophy and
animals of all ages. Skin discoloration can be readily reduced joint movement. Ruptured muscles, for example
observed in unpigmented breeds. Obvious signs of hind limb adductors, result in swelling and an inability to
sunburn may be visible in pale-skinned pigs, especially on stand.
outdoor units. Extensive superficial scratches and bite
wounds may be visible when fighting has occurred follow-
ing mixing of groups. Restraint

Diarrhoea Whenever possible, pigs should be examined quietly

Normal pig faeces are quite fi rm and well formed, and are and with minimum restraint. The greater the restraint,
passed in a dunging area in one corner of the pen. Pigs the more upset the pig becomes and the more difficult
with diarrhoea may show faecal staining on the perineal and less effective the clinical examination is. Making
area and often defecate in all parts of the pen. contact vocally and by palpation has a soothing effect.
Pigs also enjoy being scratched along their backs, sides,
and behind their ears, and will often stand still during the
Neurological signs
process.
These are associated with a number of conditions in pigs.
The examination of one pig in a pen surrounded by
One of the most common is head tilt. This is mostly
many others can be difficult. Fellow pigs may attack a
caused by middle ear or vestibular disease. Physical tilting
restrained animal, and equipment may be broken or
of the head is sometimes seen in pigs with a large, heavy
damaged by biting. Individual animals can be removed
aural haematoma. Fitting is seen in pigs with meningitis,
from their pen. Separation must be minimal to avoid a
which can be caused by a number of serotypes of Strep-
returning pig being attacked and injured by its fellows.
tococcus suis and also occurs in some cases of Haemophi-
Sows and boars can be enticed into a feeder for examina-
lus parasuis infection (Glasser’s disease). Fitting may also
tion using food.
be seen in some cases of classical swine fever and in water
Weaners and fi nishers can be penned in a corner behind
deprivation (salt poisoning). It can also be a feature of
a board. They can be effectively restrained while their
exotic diseases such as Teschen’s disease and African
temperature is taken by holding their tail and looping it
swine fever. Ataxia is seen in animals that have suffered
around the fi ngers. Individual animals can be restrained
a spinal injury or compression of the spine by infection or
in a weighing machine or turned into dorsal recumbency
a pathological fracture. Incoordination of the forelimbs
and placed in a cradle.
is a feature of bowel oedema.
Restraint of animals in an outdoor environment can be
very difficult unless a secure accessible pen is available. If
Udder conformation such animals are seriously unwell, requiring detailed
Changes in udder conformation, which are best appreci- examination and longer-term treatment, they should be
ated with the animal in the standing position, include brought into an indoor environment.
enlargement of single glands as a result of acute or Restraint for examination may involve the
chronic mastitis and generalized enlargement in following.
mastitis–metritis–agalactia. Inactive glands are smaller. ● Snares. A metal or cord snare secured around the
upper jaw and snout of pigs can be an effective method
Respiratory signs of restraint for techniques such as bleeding (Fig. 1.5).
Abnormal breathing is readily observed, particularly fol- In weaners, a length of bale string can be used in a
lowing exercise. Coughing is a feature of many forms of similar fashion.
pneumonia. Prolonged and persistent coughing may be ● Pig board: used to direct the pig rather than restrain it
heard in pigs suffering from enzootic pneumonia. Severely (Fig. 1.6).
dyspnoeic pigs may breathe through their open mouths. ● Tail holding. Individual pigs from weaners to adults
Nasal breathing is difficult in cases of rhinitis, and a snuf- can be restrained briefly for taking temperature,
fl ing sound accompanies air movement. looking at feet, and auscultation of the chest
(Fig. 1.7).
Lameness ● Small piglets can be picked up by a hind leg and held
Lameness in pigs is common. Observation may indicate for examination (Fig. 1.8).
the prevalence, the limbs involved, the severity, and the ● Feeding stalls or weighing crates can be useful to
possible cause. Pigs suffering from a fracture are often restrain single or groups of pigs (Fig. 1.9).
non–weight bearing on the affected limb. This is also seen ● Food on the floor to distract the pig (Fig. 1.10).

4
 RESTRAINT

Fig 1.5 – Snares are very effective in restraining pigs for clinical Fig 1.6 – The short nose of a normal Middle White gilt. Note the
examination. presence of a pig board to provide protection for the clinician.

Fig 1.8 – Small pigs can be lifted from the fl oor and held in the
arms.
Fig 1.7 – Restraint of a weaner using the tail to enable the
temperature to be taken.

Fig 1.9 – Feeding stalls can be used for restraint of adult pigs. Fig 1.10 – Placing food on the fl oor will often distract the pig to
facilitate examination.

5
CHAPTER 1 INVESTIGATION OF CLINICAL PROBLEMS ON PIG FARMS

Chemical sedation may involve the following. the greater the restraint of the pig, the less effective the
● Azaperone (Stresnil, Janssen Animal Health) is clinical examination. For some procedures, such as blood
the only sedative licensed for use in pigs in the UK. sampling and x-ray examination, restraint and possibly
It is given by intramuscular injection at a dose of sedation are essential.
1–2 mg/kg.
● General anaesthesia or heavy sedation. No drugs are Methods of clinical examination
currently licensed for use in pigs in the UK. An effec-
There are several different approaches to the clinical
tive but expensive combination of drugs is as follows.
examination. The complete clinical examination consists
– Detomidine 50–100 μg/kg given by intramuscular
of checking for the presence or absence of all the clinical
injection.
abnormalities and predisposing disease risk factors. From
– Butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg given by intramuscular
this information, a ranked list of differential diagnoses is
injection at the same time as detomidine.
deduced. This is a failsafe method and ensures that no
– Ketamine 3–5 mg/kg given by intramuscular injec-
abnormality or risk factor is missed.
tion 5–10 min later.
The problem-oriented method (hypothetico-deductive
– The effects of the above drug combination can be
method) combines clinical examination and differential
rapidly reversed by the administration of 50 mg/kg
diagnosis. The sequence of the clinical investigation
of atipamazole by intramuscular injection.
is dictated by the differential diagnoses generated from
the previous fi ndings. This results in a limited but very
focused examination. The success of the method relies
Physical examination heavily on the knowledge of the clinician and usually
assumes that a single condition is responsible for the
Physical examination may be performed because of an
abnormalities.
individual problem or a herd problem, or as part of a
Many clinicians begin their examination by performing
routine herd health consultation. It may be part of a bio-
a general examination that includes a broad search for
security protocol to examine all incoming animals while
abnormalities. The system or region involved is identified
still in quarantine. The animals to be examined may be
and is then examined in greater detail using either a com-
kept intensively indoors or extensively outdoors and may
plete or a problem-oriented examination.
have organic status. These animals may be boars, dry
Normal physiological values are given in Tables 1.1 and
sows, sows and piglets, weaners, growers, and fi nishers.
1.2.
When clinicians are called on to examine individual
pigs, the implications for the rest of the herd of any dis-
eases found should be carefully considered. The level of
Physical examination of adult and
certainty required regarding the diagnosis may be of par-
growing pigs
ticular importance with regard to the cost of targeted The scope, sequence, and detail of the physical exami-
control and prevention strategies. nation will vary according to the class of animal, the
When entering or leaving a pig farm, the clinician must
make every effort to avoid bringing infection on to a pig
unit or transferring infection to another unit by following
effective decontamination protocols.
Table 1.1 Normal physiological values of adult pigs
The natural tendency of the pig to try to escape from
any restraint or confi nement limits the way in which it can Variable Range Average
be restrained, handled, and examined. Its tendency to Temperature (°C) 38.0–39.0 38.5
squeal when restrained makes some aspects of the exami- Resting pulse rate (beats/min) 60–90 75
nation, such as auscultation of the chest, difficult but Resting respiration rate (breaths/min) 10–20 15
seldom impossible. Sows with litters and breeding boars Oestrus cycle (days) 18–24 21
Gestation (days) 110–116 114
are potentially aggressive and dangerous. Their pens
should not be entered in the absence of a stockperson.
Attempting to examine one or two sick pigs in a group
of 20 others can be difficult. Individual pigs can be taken
out of the pen briefly for examination, but they must be Table 1.2 Normal physiological values of piglets
reintroduced carefully, as the returning pigs may be set
on, attacked, or even killed by their pen mates. The diffi - Variable Range Average
culties of examining pigs can be largely overcome by using Temperature (°C) 39.0–40.0 39.5
a quiet and gentle approach. Patience, quietness, and a Pulse (beats/min) 100–120 110
knowledge of pig behaviour are very important. In general, Respiration (breaths/min) 24–36 30

6
 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

temperament of the animal, and the restraint facilities

available.

Temperature, pulse, respiratory rate, mucous

membranes, and carcass lymph nodes
Temperature
The pig’s normal rectal temperature is 39ºC. A high tem-
perature is seen in many infectious diseases such as swine
erysipelas, when body temperature may be in the range
40.5–41ºC. In cases of heatstroke, to which pigs are very
susceptible, body temperature may rise to 43ºC, which if
prolonged is incompatible with life. A low temperature
is not a good sign and is seen in terminally ill pigs and
those with problems such as renal or hepatic failure. A
low temperature is often seen in cases of the mastitis– Fig 1.11 – The colour of the conjunctival mucosa can be readily seen
metritis–agalactia syndrome. In diarrhoeic animals, the in quiet sows.
placement of a thermometer may induce an episode of
diarrhoea. The carcass lymph nodes
These are not palpable unless enlarged. Enlargement of a
Respiratory rate few or all the carcass lymph nodes is seen in cases of
Respiration should be observed, and the rate taken before multicentric lymphosarcoma, which can affect pigs from
the pig is disturbed by observation of thoracic movement. a few days old to maturity. Marked enlargement of one
Respiratory rate is normally 15–20 breaths/min. Rapid, submandibular lymph node with swelling of the adjacent
laboured breathing interrupted by coughing may be tissues and in association with severe systemic signs is
present in cases of enzootic pneumonia. Open-mouthed found in some cases of anthrax. Enlarged inguinal lymph
breathing is an unusual but ominous sign and is occasion- nodes may be palpable or visible in cases of postweaning
ally seen in cases of severe pneumonia and in the porcine multisystemic wasting syndrome.
stress syndrome. Exaggerated chest wall movements occur
in cases of respiratory distress. The skin
The skin should be examined visually and then man-
Pulse ually. The palm of the hand should always be passed
A pulse of 60–90 beats/min is normal in adult pigs but over the withers and shoulders of pigs to check for the
increases rapidly if the pig is stressed. Finding a peripheral presence of the raised diamond-shaped lesions that are
pulse can be difficult. The femoral artery can be used in seen in cases of subacute erysipelas. Such lesions are often
young pigs and the ventral coccygeal artery in adult pigs, palpable before being visible, especially in black pigs.
although rarely done. The heart rate is normally mea- Chronic skin lesions will be present if ear or flank sucking
sured by cardiac auscultation. Brief periods of ausculta- has occurred. Tail biting will be self evident.
tion only may be possible. A persistently rapid pulse may
be found in cases of endocarditis in which poor pulse Skin temperature
recovery from modest exercise is also seen. Skin temperature closely reflects body temperature.
The skin often feels unrepentantly warm in pyrexic
Mucous membranes animals.
These are readily observed in the conjunctiva and the
vulval mucosa. Tickling the pig behind the eye often Skin colour
causes slight relaxation and allows the clinician to briefly Skin pallor is a feature of iron deficiency anaemia, in
evert the lower lid to view the conjunctiva. The capillary which affected pigs may also show pica – voraciously
refill time (normally <2 s) can be measured at the vulva. devouring specks of earth on the clinician’s boots. Yellow
The capillary refi ll time is the time it takes for the colour discoloration indicates jaundice, which is seen in some
of the mucous membrane to return following blanching cases of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome,
by applying digital pressure to the surface. Extended refi ll in hepatic cirrhosis, and in the relatively uncommon
times indicate poor peripheral perfusion. Colour changes con-dition of Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae infection.
may indicate toxaemia, cyanosis, jaundice, and anaemia Large areas of the back may be red and burned in cases
(Fig. 1.11). Petechial haemorrhages may be present in of sunburn. Areas of purplish red discoloration are seen
septicaemia or bleeding disorders. in cases of septicaemia and toxaemia. Such areas may be

7
CHAPTER 1 INVESTIGATION OF CLINICAL PROBLEMS ON PIG FARMS

generalized or more localized, affecting the ears, jowl, eases and in classical swine fever. Conjunctivitis is rela-
belly, axilla, and caudal aspects of the thighs. Localized tively common in suckling piglets.
lesions are sometimes seen in cases of Salmonella infec-
tion and toxaemia. Skin ecchymoses are seen in some The ears
cases of classical swine fever and porcine dermatitis and The ears are vulnerable to injury by fighting and loss of
nephropathy syndrome. tags. Sarcoptic mange may affect the pinna and the exter-
nal auditory canal. Head shaking caused by mange infes-
Skin texture tation may lead to the development of haematomata in
Decreased turgor occurs in dehydration, and this can be one or both ears.
detected by pinching the skin of the ventral abdomen.
Prolonged tenting of the skin results. The mouth
The mouth is rarely affected by disease but can be briefly
Ectoparasites observed by using a smooth stick to encourage the opening
Sarcoptes scabiei infestation is very common in pigs, of the mouth. Heavy sedation or general anaesthesia is
causing pruritus, self-infl icted skin damage, and thicken- required for a more detailed examination.
ing of the skin, especially on the head (including the ears),
dorsum of the back, perineum, and limbs. The external The snout
auditory canal is often fi lled with dark wax in which mites Close examination may confi rm the presence of rhinitis,
may just be visible. The large dorsoventrally flattened and deviation of the snout is seen in some cases of atrophic
louse Haematopinus suis is readily seen on the dorsal rhinitis.
surface of the body.
The neck
Lesions of skin disease Nodular swellings just caudal to the ear are usually the
The raised red, diamond-shaped lesions of swine erysip- result of fibrosis caused by earlier injections. The jugular
elas have been mentioned above. In peracute erysipelas, vein cannot be visualized or palpated.
the pig may die before skin lesions become apparent.
Ringworm caused chiefly by Trichophyton mentagro- The chest and abdomen
phytes is characterized by light-brown, slightly raised
The heart
lesions seen chiefly on the back and flanks. Pityriasis
Detailed auscultation of the heart is difficult unless the
rosea, which is characterized by raised centrifugal irregu-
pig is severely ill, very quiet, or asleep (Fig. 1.12). Auscul-
lar lesions, may appear suddenly on the ventral surface of
tation is non-productive when the animal is eating,
the body in growing pigs.
because of the sound of chewing and grunting. This
should be borne in mind when deciding on a method of
Skin injuries
restraint. Gross abnormalities such as loud murmurs may
Skin injuries are mostly the result of fighting after mixing.
be audible, and an assessment of the heart rate can be
They vary from superficial scratches to deep extensive
lesions caused by the tusks. Subcutaneous haemorrhage
leads to the formation of haematomata. Abscess forma-
tion frequently follows injury. Haematomata are usually
fluctuant but cool to the touch; abscesses are warm.
Differential diagnosis can be confi rmed using ultrasono-
graphic scan or by aspirating the contents.

The head and neck

The clinician should examine and perform appropriate
tests to establish that normal hearing and sight are
present.

The eyes
Foreign bodies in the eyes and ears of pigs are extremely
uncommon. Nystagmus is often visible in cases of menin-
gitis. Severe corneal damage may occur in pigs that are
fitting. Exophthalmus may be seen in cases of mediastinal Fig 1.12 – Brief auscultation of the heart of a weaner pig is possible
lymphosarcoma, and eyelid oedema is a feature of bowel in some cases. Forcible restraint of the pig makes auscultation
oedema. Ocular discharge is seen in some respiratory dis- impossible.

8
 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

made. The stethoscope is pushed forwards under the The urinary system
triceps muscle to the fi fth rib, and both sides of the chest Pyelonephritis is seen chiefly in sows and gilts within a
should be auscultated. First and second heart sounds can week of service. The passage of dark-coloured urine con-
be identified. An apex beat may be palpable in normal taining blood, pus, and cellular debris is often the fi rst
piglets and in animals with cardiac enlargement. A sys- sign of the disease. Initially, the animal is pyrexic and may
tolic murmur may be detected over the tricuspid valve in walk with an arched back. Toxaemia and uraemia develop
cases of endocarditis. Fluid sounds may be audible in early rapidly. If urine is not passed naturally on standing, a
cases of pericarditis, but later on the heart sounds may sample can be readily taken via a catheter.
become muffled. Fluid sounds are occasionally audible in
mulberry heart disease. Lameness: the limbs and feet
Lameness is a common problem in pigs. Observation may
The lungs indicate which limb(s) is affected and the severity of the
Detailed auscultation is difficult. Pigs suffering from lameness. Further clinical examination requires restraint,
respiratory disease are often distressed, and any attempt palpation, and manipulation of the affected limb (Fig.
to restrain them can make their distress worse. The lung 1.13). Comparison with the normal limb may help iden-
field extends from the shoulder caudally to the 13th rib in tify the abnormality. Foot and upper limb lesions each
the dorsal chest and as far back as the seventh rib ven- account for 50% of clinical lameness.
trally. Wheezing (narrowed airways), bubbling sounds Weaner pigs and young fi nishers can be carefully lifted
(intermittent unblocking of bronchioles), and high- by an assistant while an affected limb is examined in
pitched squeaking sound (pleuritis) may be audible in detail. In quiet sows and boars the foot may be lifted
enzootic pneumonia and other causes of pneumonia, briefly, but this often causes rapid kicking movements in
when there is usually pathology in the ventral lung fi eld. the pig, making examination difficult. Heat, swelling, and
In pleuropneumonia, abnormal lung sounds may be pain may be detected. Massage of the ventral body surface
audible over the dorsal lung field. Percussion of the chest encourages the animal to remain in recumbency, enabling
is unrewarding. the foot and lower limb to be examined in detail before
the pig stands (Fig. 1.14). The cause of lameness can often
The abdomen be determined before the pig stands up and the degree of
The abdomen should have a full but not distended or lameness is observed. The sole should be checked for
bloated appearance. Deep palpation of the abdomen is white line disease, and the coronary band for swelling and
resented, but fetal presence and movement are palpable in discharging sinuses.
recumbent sows in late pregnancy. Severe pain may be
elicited when the sublumbar area is palpated in the pres-
ence of pyelonephritis. In quiet animals, auscultation
reveals borborygmi.
Abdominal distension can be the result of rectal stric-
ture. Affected animals pass intermittent flatus and scant
watery black faeces. The presence of a stricture can be
confi rmed by digital rectal examination. Ascites is uncom-
mon and associated with hepatic cirrhosis. In both of the
above conditions, affected animals are often in very poor
bodily condition. Percussion and auscultation may indi-
cate a gas-fi lled viscus with acute obstruction. Percussion
and palpation for a fluid thrill is difficult to assess. A less
common cause of abdominal distension is peritonitis.
Scrotal and umbilical hernias are common in pigs. Ultra-
sonography facilitates further evaluation of abdominal
contents.

The perineum
The colour of faecal staining on the perineum may be of
diagnostic value. Dark tar-like faeces containing blood
are seen in cases of swine dysentery. Dysentery is also seen
in some cases of salmonellosis and porcine intestinal ade-
nomatosis. It is rarely seen in enteric colibacillosis. Rectal Fig 1.13 – Manual inspection of the foot in an adult pig on a snare.
and vaginal prolapses are not uncommon in pigs. Lifting the feet (especially the forefeet) is resented in most pigs.

9
CHAPTER 1 INVESTIGATION OF CLINICAL PROBLEMS ON PIG FARMS

Muscle damage
This is usually the result of an accident, for example when
gilts are mounted by a heavy boar. Rupture of the adduc-
tor muscles may result in inability to stand. Affected
muscles may be swollen and painful to the touch. Ultra-
sonography confi rms the extent of muscle damage.

The external genitalia, mammary gland, and

rectal examination of the sow
The vulva is frequently damaged by biting injuries includ-
ing lacerations infl icted by other sows, especially after
weaning or in late pregnancy when the vulval lips can
become swollen. A vulval haematoma involving one or
Fig 1.14 – If the lame sow is lying quietly, her feet can be examined both lips of the vulva may develop as a result of crushing
with ease while she is recumbent. The severity of lameness is pressure sustained during farrowing or by the sow rubbing
determined at a later stage when she is encouraged to stand. her hindquarters against her farrowing crate.
A vaginal discharge may be seen during normal preg-
nancy in some sows. It may also indicate recent abortion.
A pale yellowish white discharge is seen in some cases
Foot lameness of the mastitis–metritis–agalactia syndrome. A foul-
Overgrowth and cracking of the hooves causes lameness, smelling, watery vaginal discharge with placental rem-
especially in breeding animals. Solar necrosis and white nants after farrowing may indicate that one or more fetuses
line disease can also cause lameness, while infection of have been retained. Affected animals may be toxaemic and
the third phalanx (‘bumble foot’) may cause the leg to be very ill. A vulval discharge is normal in sows up to 5 days
non-weight bearing. Vesicles and subsequent ulcers on the after farrowing and consists of mucus with white floccu-
coronary band may be seen in foot and mouth disease and lent and sometimes odourless bloody material.
in swine vesicular disease. Similar lesions may be caused A uterine prolapse involving one or both uterine horns
by contact with irritant solutions. Biotin deficiency may may occur during or most commonly after farrowing.
cause multiple hoof cracks. Affected sows may be found dead as a result of internal
haemorrhage.
Joint disease A mild postural partial vaginal prolapse is sometimes
Numerous organisms cause septic arthritis in various age seen in recumbent pregnant sows.
groups of pigs. These include Mycoplasma hyosynoviae,
M. hyorhinis, Streptococcus suis, Haemophilus parasuis, The udder
and Arcanobacter pyogenes. Most infections are charac- The normal mammary gland and teats should be evenly
terized by pyrexia, distension of the joint capsule, and soft and free from injury (Fig. 1.15). The udder becomes
lameness in one or several limbs. In neglected cases the fi rm and turgid as farrowing approaches. In the lactating
joint infection can spread to the bones, causing osteomye- sow, a bead of milk can usually be expressed from each
litis, ankylosis of the joints, and severe muscle wasting. teat. Larger amounts can be expressed only when the sow
Osteochondrosis may be present in rapidly growing is either farrowing or letting down her milk in the pres-
animals. ence of attentive piglets. Cranial teats may not be patent
due to teat necrosis. Inverted teats or blind teats may be
Fractures detected. Abrasions and lacerations are common because
The affected limb is usually non-weight bearing. Crepitus of trauma from the floor or the teeth of the piglets.
may be detected when the limb is gently manipulated. Acute mastitis usually affects only a small number of
Concurrent auscultation with a stethoscope increases the mammary glands and mostly occurs within a few days of
acuity. Fracture may be predisposed by osteomalacia and farrowing. The sow is initially pyrexic, but the tempera-
osteodystrophy. Detailed diagnosis is aided by radiogra- ture falls as she rapidly becomes very ill. The affected
phy of the anaesthetized pig if economically justified. Slip- parts of her udder are extremely hard, and the skin
page and displacement of the femoral head is seen in becomes discoloured through septicaemia and toxaemia.
young boars. The affected limb is just weight bearing, but If a milk sample can be obtained, it may be abnormal.
the animal is severely lame. The condition is part of Mastitis–metritis–agalactia is usually seen within 48 h
the leg weakness syndrome, where osteochondrosis is the of farrowing. Body temperature is subnormal. The whole
main pathological lesion. udder becomes mildly inflamed and indurate. Chronic

10
 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

Fig 1.15 – The entire udder should be palpated during the clinical
examination.
Fig 1.17 – Palpation of prepucial diverticulum.

by fighting injuries. Vasectomy wounds, if present, will be

found in the inguinal region. The penis can be palpated
within the prepuce, and the spiral anterior pole is found
10 cm from the anterior end of the prepuce. The sigmoid
flexure of the penis in boars is anterior to the scrotum and
palpable in thin boars subcutaneously between the hind
legs. The presence of the large fluctuant prepucial diver-
ticulum in boars has been mentioned above. Squeezing
this swelling will mostly cause foul-smelling fluid to exude
from the prepuce (Fig. 1.17). The diverticulum can easily
be mistaken for an abscess or hernia, with dangerous
consequences. The clinician is advised to wear gloves
when handling this area. Bleeding from the prepuce may
occur at or after service, and the erect penis should be
Fig 1.16 – Testicular palpation in a young boar. examined at mating for evidence of wounds or other
damage. Cases of suspected infertility are investigated as
in the bull.
mastitis is usually seen in dry sows after weaning. One or
more mammary glands become very hard as thick-walled
The sow and her litter
abscesses are formed, some with discharging tracts.
When examining a sow with a litter of piglets in a farrow-
Rectal examination in the sow ing crate, it is prudent to remove the piglets out of harm’s
Rectal examination in the sow can be carried out with a way by barricading them in the creep area. The sow and
well-lubricated, gloved hand. The dry faeces of the sow her litter should always be considered as a single unit. Ill
and her narrow pelvis make the procedure less informa- health in a sow rapidly leads to reduced milk production,
tive than in the larger farm species. The caudal genital with piglet starvation and hypoglycaemia. Continuous
tract, the bladder, the blood vessels within the pelvis, and vocalization by the litter is an indication that the sow
sometimes the ovaries can be palpated. It may be possible is unwell with a poor milk supply. Milk consumption is
to palpate the caudal pole of a grossly enlarged left reduced in sick piglets and may predispose to maternal
kidney. mammary disease.

External genitalia in the boar Sow and piglet behaviour

The testes should be of equal size and on palpation have Sows with litters may be aggressive and, unless in a far-
the consistency of a ripe tomato (Fig. 1.16). Softening and rowing crate, should be approached with great care.
reduction in size may be seen in cases of testicular degen- Access to the sow and her litter can be difficult on outdoor
eration. The skin covering the scrotum is often damaged units. Sows in such units are visible at feeding time, and

11
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Music - Study Cards
Fall 2021 - College

Prepared by: Dr. Davis

Date: August 12, 2025

Summary 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics

Learning Objective 1: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 9: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 2: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 3: Ethical considerations and implications
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 22: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 24: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 27: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 4: Literature review and discussion
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 36: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 38: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 5: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 41: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 42: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 6: Interdisciplinary approaches
Example 50: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 52: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 55: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 59: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 7: Key terms and definitions
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 65: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 66: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 8: Study tips and learning strategies
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 72: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 74: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 75: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 77: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 78: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Discussion 9: Practical applications and examples
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 87: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 10: Fundamental concepts and principles
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 93: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 96: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 97: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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