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Eight Domains of Phenomenology and
Research Methods

Eight Domains of Phenomenology and Research Methods is a unique

text that explains how the foundational literature representing our life-
world experience aligns theory with research methods.
Maintaining focus on the core problem of phenomenological inves-
tigations, the author strives to bridge theory with applied research by
critically reviewing examples from the applied literature. With the
extensive use of the foundational literature’s original voices, the book
elaborates on how renowned scholars such as Husserl, Heidegger, and
Sartre argued their ideas. A range of diverse voices is also explored
through the perspectives of feminist and Black phenomenologists. The
text then goes on to unpack the phenomenological methodologies
with detailed explanations of signature techniques, hereunder the
epoché and reduction from the perspectives of transcendental phe-
nomenology, phenomenological psychology, and genetic (generative)
phenomenology. Finally, it addresses the problem of articulating phe-
nomenological research questions as well as interview questions that
align with the different domains and methodologies.
This book is a must read for postgraduate students, dissertation stu-
dents, and qualitative researchers interested in conducting phenome-
nological research within social psychology, sociology, and education.

Henrik Gert Larsen is a phenomenology expert. He is an alumnus of

the University of Copenhagen and the Chicago School of Professional
Psychology. His experience includes chairing dissertations and teach-
ing qualitative research. He has also authored books on phenomeno-
logical research and development and application.
Eight Domains of
Phenomenology and
Research Methods

Henrik Gert Larsen

First published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an
informa business
© 2023 Henrik Gert Larsen
The right of Henrik Gert Larsen to be identified as author of
this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be
trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
ISBN: 978-1-032-21797-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-21800-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-27005-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003270058
Typeset in Times New Roman
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Review of the Seminal Methodological Literature 4

3 What Is a Phenomenon? 12

4 I Think Therefore I Am 25

5 Why Are We Studying First-Person Point of View

Experiences?32

6 Epistemological Phenomenology 39

7 Epoché and Reduction: The Phenomenological

Methods47

8 Existential Phenomenology 69

9 Critical Phenomenology 91

10 The Phenomenological Research Question 103

11 The Phenomenological Interview 108

12 Decision Tree 114

References 118
Index 129
1 Introduction

The problems the phenomenological literature is concerned with are

not well articulated in the secondary literature. Often, phenomenology
is boiled down to a single inductive method, and readers will encoun-
ter catchphrases such as “the meaning of the lived experience” or “the
essence of the lived experience,” but stating that you are researching
“lived experiences” and interviewing subjects does not on its own pro-
duce phenomenological findings.
In his famous preface to Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-
Ponty (1978, p. vii) provided a definition of phenomenology (i.e., the
study of essence). Merleau-Ponty pointed to several research themes,
for example, the essence of consciousness, the essence of perception,
or the essence stemming from human existence in the world. However,
his explanation underscores the heterogeneous nature of the field
rather than providing a clarification of the subject matter itself, and in
contrast, Heidegger (2010) argued that phenomenology should be
conceived more in terms of a method, which does not designate “the
objects of its research” (pp. 32–33).
Although the seminal authors have different definitions of phenom-
enology, a common theme is that the meaning of reality must be
understood from the first-person point of view. Thus, it is our reality
because we live it, and Merleau-Ponty stated that “no world whatso-
ever is conceivable that is not thought by someone” (Edie, 2000, p. 57).
Consequently, Merleau-Ponty (1978) argued that “all my knowledge
of the world, even my scientific knowledge, is gained from my own
particular point of view, or from some experience of the world with-
out which the symbols of science would be meaningless” (p. viii).
In this connection, Husserl (2017, p. 425) concluded that phenome-
nology is focused on the problem of constitution (Konstitutionsprobleme)
and argued that “the comprehensive task of constitutive phenomenology”

DOI: 10.4324/9781003270058-1
2 Introduction
is “the elucidation of the whole interpretation of the operation of con-
sciousness which leads to the constitution of a possible world”
(Husserl, 1973b, p. 50). In this manner, the axiom of phenomenologi-
cal research can be boiled down to “the world, then, and the being of
that which is to be found in the world, are concretely understood when
they are understood as constituted” (Fink, 1995, p. li).
However, phenomenology is distinct from psychology. Where the
psychologist primarily focuses on how an exterior reality affects the
mind, then the phenomenologist presupposes that this reality is not
actual but a “constituted objectification” (Marion, 1998, p. 2) and is
therefore interested in the “problems of phenomenological shaping”
(Husserl, 2017, p. 425) of reality. Husserl (2017, p. 23) credited
Brentano with discovering that consciousness is intentional and being
conscious is therefore always being conscious of something (Husserl,
1977, p. 22), and intentionality has its own immanent objectification
that shapes our experience of the world in certain ways (Zahavi, 2007,
p. 70).
Merleau-Ponty claimed that intentionality is the main discovery of
phenomenology (Merleau-Ponty, 1978, p. xvii), but here we are imme-
diately confronted with the fact that Husserl’s fellow phenomenolo-
gists defined intentionally in very different ways and consequently
took their considerations of the constitution problem in very different
directions.
The gist of the disagreement within the phenomenological tradition
can be boiled down to whether essentia or existentia has priority. In
other words, should the phenomenological investigation focus on sub-
jectivity or comportment (behaviors)? This schism is clearly illustrated
by the disagreements between Husserl and his most prominent student
Heidegger. For example, Husserl (Sheehan, 2007) expressed grave res-
ervations about Heidegger’s articulation of phenomenology in Being
and Time, published in 1927, and in private correspondence stated,

I really have to regret that, as regards method and content, his

work (and his lecture courses too, for that matter) seem to be
essentially different from my works and courses; in any event, up
to this point there still exists no bridge between him and me that
the students we share in common can cross.
(p. 385)

Finally, around 1929, Husserl concluded that he could no longer

include Heidegger’s work within the framework of his phenomenology
(Fink, 1995, p. xi).
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 Introduction 3
Consequently, the notion of a unified phenomenological research
paradigm is one of the first myths we must dispel. According to
Heidegger (1988), “[T]here is no such thing as one phenomenology”
(p. 328), and in this spirit, I will consider eight specific domains of
phenomenological theory and aligned methods. Specifically, I will
consider how the foundational literature articulates and examines the
problem of what it means for something to be real.
2 Review of the Seminal
Methodological Literature

Moustakas and Empathy

Within the applied literature, one of the best-known works may be
Moustakas’s (1994) Phenomenological Research Methods. This book is
wrapped in Husserlian phenomenology and offers the reader an
authentic definition of intentionality as being synonymous with con-
sciousness (p. 59). Nevertheless, Moustakas took considerable poetic
license with the foundational literature. For example, Moustakas
(1994, p. 85) explained that the epoché is a process of setting aside
personal biases and engaging in reflections about what the research
subjects are disclosing. This is obviously not the case, and as any
casual reading of Husserl’s works would reveal, the purpose of the
epoché is to put the natural attitude out of play.
Moustakas (1994, p. 41) revealed that his version of the phenome-
nological method is equally inspired by his background as a therapist
and stated that “the method through which the other becomes accessi-
ble to me is that of empathy” (p.37). It is not uncommon to see
researchers with a background in therapy apply themselves in a man-
ner where they essentially co-construct meanings with their subjects,
and Giorgi (2006) pointed out that Moustakas’s research typically
emulates a therapy format because most of Moustakas’s cases only
include a single subject. Nevertheless, the question is whether empathy
can be defended as a method of what Zahavi (2007) calls the “concep-
tual problem of other minds” (p. 68).
Relatedly, Max Scheler, in his seminal work The Nature of Sympathy
(1954), stated, “[I]t is a fundamental weakness of theories, which seek
to derive our knowledge of other minds from inferences or processes
of empathy” (p. 251). Scheler explained that “the theory of empathy
offers no grounds for assuming the existence of other selves, let alone
other individuals. For it can only serve to confirm the belief that it is

DOI: 10.4324/9781003270058-2
 Review of the Seminal Methodological Literature 5
my self, which is present all over again, and never that this self is other
and different from my own” (p. 242).
Thus, Moustakas’s reliance on empathy as a method for overcoming
the barriers between his mind and the minds of others may suffer from
what William James identified as the “psychologist’s fallacy,” where
the researcher confounds their frame of reference with their subjects
(Ashworth, 2009).
Moustakas’s (1994) work is an idiosyncratic presentation of the
phenomenological research approach and is positioned outside of the
established traditions. Although Moustakas references Husserl’s main
works, he fails to make any connections with the deep body of meth-
odological and applied literature that came out of the Dutch and
Duquesne schools, and researchers using his approach will therefore
find themselves producing research outside of the applied phenome-
nological psychological tradition.

Giorgi and Psychological Subjectivity

Giorgi (1985, 2009) offered a different take on Husserlian-inspired
phenomenological research. In Phenomenology and Psychological
Research and The Descriptive Phenomenological Method in Psychology:
A Modified Husserlian Approach, Giorgi’s take on the psychological
phenomenological method is sometimes referred to as the Duquesne
School, from the university where it first took root in the United States,
or simply existential phenomenology. The Duquesne School was moti-
vated by the need to establish rigorous procedures for qualitative psy-
chological research grounded in the phenomenological literature
(Englander & Morley, 2021). In this respect, it is aligned with the
Dutch School, which aimed at a phenomenological clarification of the
basic psychological concepts (Kockelmans, 1987).
However, Giorgi (2009) decided to emphasize the term descriptive
for the purpose of reminding researchers not to colonize their research
with extant theoretical perspectives and instead focus on the data
(Englander & Morley, 2022). In this manner, Giorgi stays true to
Husserl’s (2017) axiom that “self-evident data are patient, they let the-
ories chatter about them, but remain what they are. It is the business
of theories to conform to the data” (p. 89).
Giorgi (2009, p. 184) posited that psychological subjectivity is a form
of intentionality and therefore relevant for the study of essence, and
ultimately, Giorgi’s (2009) project is to illuminate the subjects’ “psycho-
logical reality” (p. 184). Thus, Giorgi’s approach is a modification of
Husserl’s transcendental method. In this connection, Keirby (1997)
6 Review of the Seminal Methodological Literature
argued that Husserl’s methods aim at an “illumination accessible only
to the individual who performs the reduction” (p. 208). This position
seems to be congruent with Husserl’s views in Ideas: General Introduction
to Pure Phenomenology, where he stated, “[W]e have primordial experi-
ence of ourselves and our states of consciousness in the so-called inner
or self-perception not of others” (Husserl, 2017, p. 51). However, when
Husserl made these statements, he was attempting to develop a scien-
tific philosophy, and therefore they should not be construed as an argu-
ment against the possibilities of descriptive psychology.
Thus, Merleau-Ponty (Edie, 2000) argued that nothing in Husserl’s
phenomenological theory prohibits the elucidation of the experience
of another person as long as “I perceive him and his mode of behav-
iour” (p. 65) because in this situation, “the experience of researcher
and subject are interrelated” (p. 65). In other words, the researcher is
the principal instrument of illumination, and all thematic findings are
ultimately derived from the phenomenological reflections of the
researcher and not the subjects. In addition, Merleau-Ponty (Edie,
2000, p. 66) argued that “knowledge of facts is impossible without
some insights into essence,” and it can therefore be argued that the
facticity of descriptive psychology also provides some insight into
essence. Hence, Giorgi (2009) posited that by assuming the right psy-
chological attitude, we can be aware of other people’s emotional states
without knowing their causes. To this end, Giorgi (2009) invoked a
version of Husserl’s eidetic method and stated that “the attitude of the
scientific reduction and the attitude of heighten psychological sensitiv-
ity” (p. 190) allows the researcher to “understand humans in the world
in a psychological way” (p. 190).
Giorgi (2009) is more attuned to the task of empirical research than
Moustakas (1994). Giorgi (2009) essentially extrapolates on the eidetic
method associated with Husserl’s (1977) lectures on phenomenologi-
cal psychology, where Moustakas ends up confounding phenomeno-
logical psychology with transcendental phenomenology. However,
Giorgi (2009) relies on the same rationale as Moustakas by invoking
techniques applied for “therapeutic situations” (p. 98). Nevertheless,
Giorgi’s approach departs from therapy as he advocates that phenom-
enological psychological research should include a larger sample than
just one subject. In other words, the eidetic variations are moved out
of the researcher’s mind and into the empirical realm, where a variety
of subjects and their perspectives ensure a background from which the
phenomenon can stand out (Giorgi, 2006, 2009).
In the second half of his book, Giorgi (2009) demonstrated his
methods with a study of jealousy. Paley (2017, p. 45) tore into Giorgi’s
 Review of the Seminal Methodological Literature 7
work and questioned how he managed to identify and delimit the jeal-
ousy phenomenon and how he can know that the interview data
describes said phenomenon. Paley’s (2017) concerns were based on a
misconception of phenomena and a misunderstanding of the research
agenda of phenomenological psychology. When Giorgi (2009) referred
to jealousy as a phenomenon, he was mistaken because jealousy is a
psychological concept and not a phenomenon. A phenomenon is an
appearance or a psychological act that lets something appear. However,
the research agenda of phenomenological psychology is essentially an
ontological clarification of basic psychological concepts (Kockelmans,
1987). However, Paley (2017) was not entirely off point with his cri-
tique, and Schutz (1972) pointed out that when researchers put a con-
cept in the place of a phenomenon, they introduce an element of
theoretical bias.

Subjectivism in Interpretative Phenomological Analysis (IPA)

Research
In Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and
Research, Smith et al. (2009) claimed to position subjectivity at the
center of their phenomenological methodology. However, Smith et al.
(2009) confounded subjectivity with subjectivism, when they suggested
that IPA aims to illuminate the lived experiences of individual subjects
“in their particular contexts, exploring their personal perspectives” (p.
32). In other words, they embraced standpoint epistemology when
they argued that the meaning of an experience simply is what the sub-
jects claim it is (p. 34). Hence, IPA does not transcend the subjects’
existential situations, and consequently, Smith et al. (2009) find no
utility in the epoché and reduction (Giorgi, 2011), which they (Smith
et al., 2009) made clear with the following statement:

For Husserl it was important to move from the individual instances

to establish the eidetic structure or essence of experience. This is
of course a noble aim. For IPA however, the prior task of detailed
analysis of particular cases of actual life and lived experience
remains the priority at this time.
(p. 38)

By eschewing the epoché and reduction, we are left with mainly idi-
ographic research outcomes, and Scheler (1973, p. xix) pointedly stated
that “there may arise here and there a view according to which phe-
nomenology deals only with isolated phenomena. … I am completely
8 Review of the Seminal Methodological Literature
removed from such picture-book phenomenology.” Whether IPA, is
picture-book phenomenology is not for this author to determine, but
without the phenomenological signature methods, IPA researchers
must assume that their subjects enjoy privileged access to the essence
of their experiences. In this manner, IPA contradicts the tenets of
Husserl’s phenomenology by essentially elevating the natural stand-
point to the arbiter of truth. The point being that the natural attitude
deceives us by perpetuating the illusion that it is the external world
that shapes our phenomenal experiences and not the other way around.
To overcome the trap of subjectivism, Smith et al. (2009) suggested
that the data should be interpreted, and, to this end, they invoked
Heidegger’s phenomenology. However, it is not entirely clear how their
notion of interpretation is particularly Heideggerian because
Heidegger’s existential phenomenology is not aimed at understanding
the specificness of human experiences in particular contexts. Thus,
Heidegger (Heidegger & Boss, 2001, p. 4) stated that

the basic constitution of human existence may be called Da-sein,

or being-in-the-world. Of course, in this context the Da of this
Da-sein certainly does not mean what it does in the ordinary sense
– a location near an observer.

Consequently, phenomenological scholars find it difficult to see how

exactly Smith et al. (2009) used the phenomenological axioms (Zahavi,
2019), and in heated rebuttals, Giorgi (2011) went as far as protesting
that IPA is just a generic qualitative method and that the homage to
Husserl and Heidegger is merely an attempt at gaining methodological
legitimacy.

Praxis and Intentionality

In contrast, Van Manen’s (2016) Phenomenology of Practice reflects
the schism between Husserl and Heidegger by alluding to a phenome-
nological knowledge that is pathic rather than gnostic. In other words,
a transcendental knowledge that is acquired through practical engage-
ment with the world (2007). Thus, Phenomenology of Practice aligns
with “Heidegger’s emphasis on Dasein’s practical behaviour, the rela-
tion to itself, the others and the world” (Luft, 2005, p. 145). Along
these lines, Van Manen (2016) introduced a range of phenomenologi-
cal domains that are based on professional practices such as “phe-
nomenological pedagogy” (p. 198) and phenomenological paediatrics”
(p. 206).
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