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Democratizing Democracy Beyond the Liberal
Democratic Canon Boaventura De Sousa Santos Digital
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 PREFACE

Ours is a paradoxical time. On the one hand, it is a time of great advances

and amazing changes, dramatically brought about by the information and
communication revolutions and the revolutions in electronics, genetics, and
biotechnology. On the other hand, however, it is a time of disquieting regres-
sions, a return of the social evils that appeared to have been or about to be
overcome. The return of slavery and slavish work; the return of high vul-
nerability to old sicknesses that seemed to have been eradioted and appear
now linked to new pandemics like HIV I AIDS; the return of the revolting
social inequalities that gave their name to the social question at the end of
the nineteenth century; in sum, the return of the specter of war, perhaps
now more than ever a world war, although \vhether cold or not is as yet
undecidable. The pat·adox resides in the following. On the one hand, the
technical conditions to fulfill the promises of Western modemity appear
today to be finally in place; on the other hand, it has become increasingly
obvious that such promises \Vere never farther from being fulfilled than today.
The promises of liberty, equality, solidarity, and peace, heralded by Western
modernity, constituted the major legacy of vvhat came to be designated as
social emancipation. M.odern political struggles focused on the conception
of such promises and on the ways to fulfill them or, on the contrary, on the
ways to prevent their fulfillment. Thereby occurred the division between
capitalists :md socialists, libeuls ::md Marxists, reformists and revolution::n·ies,
nationalists and internationalists. For different reasom (at least apparently),
such divisions today seem anachronistic or incapable of accounting for the
cleavages that traverse the \vorld. The diflerence between capitalists and
socialists appears to have been totally and irretrievably resolved in favor of
the capitalists. I\.1oreover, if one considers that neoliberalism, contrary to wh:1 t
is commonly maintained, is not a ne\v form of liberalism but rather a new
form of conservatism, both liberalism and Marxism seem to be undergoing
viii PREFACE PREFACE ix

today a deep crisis as well. The same could be said of the clea:age betw~en hegemonic form of globalization, is constituted by a series of initiatives,
reformism and revolution. On the one hand, the idea of sonal revolution movements and organizations that fight against neoliberal globalization
seems to have been erased from the political agenda, even the agenda of those through local/ global linkages, networks, and alliances. Their motivation is
who still consider themselves revolutionaries; on the other hand, reformism, the aspiration to a better, fairer and more peaceful world that they deem
that is to say, the idea of a gradual and legal improvement of the patterns of possible, and to which they believe they are entitled. This form of globaliza-
sociability, has been replaced by the concepts of governability and governance. tion is still emerging. Its most dramatic manifestation occurs in the World
Finally, the opposition between nationalists and internationalists seems to have Social Forum of Porto Alegre, of which three editions have already taken
lost its meaning in a time that designates itself as a time of globalization. place (2001, 2002, 2003).
These changes are, or appear to be, so deep that the idea of a paradigmatic To my mind, this alternative globalization, in its confi-ontation with neo-
shift seems the only adequate one to characterize our time. It may be for- liberal globalization, is what is paving a new way toward social emancipation.
mulated in two different ways: ours is too late a time to be post-revolutionary Such a confrontation, which may be metaphorically characterized as a con-
and too premature to be pre-revolutionary; or, alternatively, ours is a time frontation bet,,..,·een the North and the South, tends to be particularly intense
of modern problems (the unfulfilled promises of modernity) for which there in countries of intermediate development, or semi-peripheral countries. It
are no modern solutions (those based on the above-mentioned dichotomies is, therefore, in these countries that the potentialities and limits of the re-
now in disarray). The first formulation owes more to the old paradign1 than invention of social emancipation manifest themselves more clearly. This is
the second one. I prefer the latter because it captures more incisively the the reason why four of the five countries in which the project was con-
idea that, to my mind, should inform progressive thinking and action in our ducted are countries of intermediate development in different continents.
time: what is at stake is the reinvention of social emancipation itself. The five countries in question are: Brazil, Colombia, India, Mozambique,
This book is the first in a series of five that present the main results of an and South Africa.
international research project that I conducted under the title Reinventing The new conflicts between the North and the South occur in the most
Social Emancipation: Toward New Manifestos. The project's core idea is that the diverse domains of social, economic, political, and cultural activity. In some
action and thought that sustained and gave credibility to the modern ideals of these domains, however, the alternatives created by counter-hegemonic
of social emancipation are being profoundly questioned by a phenomenon globalization are more visible and consistent, not only because there the con-
that, although not new, has reached in the past decades such an intensity that flicts are more intense, but also because the initiatives, movements and
it has ended up redefining the contexts, objectives, means, and subjectivities progressive organizations have reached higher levels of consolidation and
of the social and political struggles. I mean what is commonly designated as organizational density. I selected the following five domains or themes to be
globalization. As a matter of fact, what we usually call globalization is just analyzed in each of the five countries included in the project: participatory
one of the forms of globalization, namely neoliberal globalization, un- democracy; alternative production systems; emancipatory multiculturalism,
doubtedly the dominant and hegemonic form of globalization. Neoliberal cultural justice and citizenship; protection of biodiversity and the recogni-
globalization corresponds to a new system of capital accumulation, a more tion of rival knowledges against neoliberal intellectual property rights; ;md
intensely globalized system than the previous ones. It aims, on the one hand, new labor internationalism. To learn about the choice of countries and
to desocialize capital, freeing it from the social and political bonds that in themes, as well as the assumptions underlying this project and the challenges
the past guaranteed some social distribution; on the other hand, it works to it aims to face, the reader should go to the general introduction of this
subject society as a whole to the market law of value, under the pre- volume.
supposition that all social activity is better organized when organized under The series comprises five volumes.1 The first three volumes deal with the
the aegis of the market. The main consequence of this double change is the above-mentioned five themes. To be sure, the themes are not watertight; there
extremely unequal distribution of the costs and opportunities brought about is intertextuality, now implicit, now explicit, among the ditierent books. This
by neoliberal globalization inside the world system. Herein resides the reason first volume is concerned with participatory democracy: The main thesis of
for the exponential increase of the social inequalities between rich and poor this book is that the hegemonic model of democracy (liberal, representative
countries, and between the rich and the poor inside the same country. democracy), while prevailing on a global scale, guarantees no more than low-
The project's assumption is that this form of globalization, though hege- intensity democracy, based on the privatization of public welfare by more or
monic, is not the only one and, in fact, has been increasingly confronted less restricted elites, on the increasing distance between representatives and
by another form of globalization. This other form, an alternative, counter- the represented, and on an abstract political inclusion made of concrete social
x PREFACE PREFACE xi

exclusion. Parallel to this hegemonic model of democracy, other models have consolidated. Such decline was in part due to the fact that the new demo-
always existed, however marginalized or discredited, such as participatory cratic state gave total priority to representative democracy while discouraging
democracy or popular democracy. Recently, participatory democracy has participatory democracy, even though the latter was inscribed in the
been gaining a new dynamics. It engages mainly subaltern col1ll1lunities and Constitution.
social groups that fight against social exclusion and the trivialization of citi- In chapter three, Rodrigo Uprimny and Mauricio Garcia Villegas explain
zenship and are propelled by the aspiration to more inclusive social contracts how a state institution that is basically very far from the citizens' democratic
and high-intensity democracy. I mean local initiatives in urban or rural aspirations, such as courts, may, under specific given circumstances, be artic-
contexts that gradually develop bonds of inter-recognition and interaction ulated positively with regards to progressive social movements and provide
with parallel initiatives, thus giving rise to the formation, as yet embryonic, positive answers to their claims. The court in question is a special one, the
of transnational networks of participatory democracy. To my mind, one of the Constitutional Court of Colombia, created in 1992 in an equally special
major conflicts between the North and the South results from the confronta- social and political context dominated by the political changes that led to
tion between representative and participatory democracy. Such a the 1991 Constitution. The authors analyze the progressive judicial responses
confrontation, which derives from the fact that representative democracy has to the social claims of the indigenous and gay movements, unions, and
systematically denied the legitimacy of participatory democracy, will be mortgage debtors.
resolved only to the extent to which such denial is replaced by the develop- In the second part, entitled TVomm's Stmggle for De111oaacy, the analysis
ment of forms of complementarity between the two forms of democracy that focuses in particular on Yvomen's struggles for the recognition of their rights
may contribute to deepen one another. Such complementarity paves one of of democratic participation in the public space.
the ways to the reinvention of social emancipation. In chapter four, Shamim Meer studies the changes that affected the dif-
This volume opens with a general introduction in which I succinctly ferent social movements during the period of struggle against apartheid and
present some of the general questions for which the project seeks answers. in the post-apartheid era, focusing, in particular, on women's movements,
These questions are treated in detail in the last volume of the series. An intro- especially women workers' movements. Given the extremity of apartheid
duction to the theme of participatory democracy, written by Leonardo capitalist repression, women activists engaged in liberation organizations at
Avritzer and myself, follows. There we try to identifY the major problems of the same time as they organized separately as women. The emergence of a
contemporary democratic theory, focusing in particular on the contribution black elite in the post-apartheid period, however, did not significantly change
of participatory democracy and having in mind the studies and analyses con- the situation of the majority of the population, let alone that of women
ducted in the project and presented in the next chapters. workers. The answer to this situation has materialized in recent years through
The book is divided into four parts. In the first part, entitled Social new social movements and the initiatives of citizens with roots in the most
Movements and Democratic Aspiration, the potentialities of participatory democ- poor and marginalized sectors of society, and through their struggle for
racy and the obstacles to its development are dealt with in the light of survival and dignity.
concrete social experiences of the last two decades. In chapter five, Conceir;:ao Osorio analyzes the theme of the participa-
In chapter one, D. L. Sheth contrasts, on the one hand, the discourse and tion of women in the Mozambican political arena, in particular in political
practices of India's social movements fighting for forms of local participa- parties. In an approach that converges with that of Shamitn Meer, Osorio
tory democracy, capable of "returning democracy to the people," with, on shows that, in the context of the sexual discrimination that traverses the
the other, the discourse and practices of urban elites that consider such various domains of Mozambican society, the struggle by women for "occu-
popular forms to be a threat to the politics of the national state and the pation" of the political field and for full participation as a collective actor is
market economy. The cultural embeddedness of India's social movements in an internally diversified struggle. While some "ocwpation" strategies con-
the Ghandian conceptions of self-government (swaraj) illustrates the ex-pan- tribute to challenge and weaken male dominance in the political arena, others
sive and multicultural potential for democratic itmovation in our time. end up reinforcing that same dominance.
In chapter two, Sakhela Buhlungu shows the decisive contribution of the In chapter six, focusing on the relation between union leadership and the
social movements and the structures of participatory democracy that shaped Woman's Committees, Maria Jose Arthur analyzes the tension between class
them toward the struggle against apartheid in South Africa in the 1980s. The identity and sexual difference in the union movement in Mozambique.
author analyzes critically the way in which participatory democracy gradu- Tracing the various tr;Uectories of several women union activists, the author
ally declined as the transition to a post-apartheid society went on becoming shows hmv, as a consequence of the reorg;mization of unions in the 1990s,
xii PREFACE PREFACE xiii

the identity of the "woman worker" was redefined in a new framework living conditions, the Uraba banana workers had the international solidarity
affected by the privatization process and the deterioration of the living con- of Danish, Finnish, and Spanish unions, as well as that of the International
ditions of the majority of the population. This is the context in which the Union of Foodstufis Workers.
author describes both the discourses that justifY the discrimination against Part four, entitled Participatory Democracy in Action, is devoted to experi-
women on the part of union leadership and the women's strategies and prac- ments in participatory democracy that were successful and reached a certain
tices that aim at the recognition of new articulations of the identities of woman level of consolidation, but also to lesser-known instances of democratic par-
and worker. ticipation and deliberation emerging in the most unlikely contexts.
The third part, entitled Stmgglingfor Democracy in a Scmario cif Civil War and In chapter ten Maria Teresa Uribe de H presents one such instance, the
Fragmertted Despotisms: I11e Case cif Colombia, reveals how an aspiration to a dramatic experience of a small village named San Jose de Apartad6, located
substantive, high-density democracy can arise in the most difficult of circum- in the region of Urabi. This village, confronted with the armed conflict in
stances, as is so well illustrated in the case of Colombia. In a situation that can its territory-a conflict involving the army, the guerrillas, and the paramili-
be characterized as the degree-zero of social emancipation, the struggle for tary groups-decided by democratic deliberation to establish itself as a
democracy, aside fi·om its extreme difficulty, assumes surprising profiles and "community of peace." It organized itself accordingly, underwriting a public
intriguing meanings. pact, indeed a local constitution, by whose terms its members agreed not to
In chapter seven, Francisco Gutierrez Sanin and Ana Maria Jaramillo con- get involved with any of the armed actors operating in the region, to demand
centrate on the "pactist" experience in Colombia. Through the detailed rather their respect, and to produce their own autonomous social organiza-
study of two local situations, in Medellin and Boyaci Occidental, the authors tion. This initiative, which gave rise to transnational solidarity, illustrates the
show how pacts between the national goverl1111ent and certain local forces possibilities of resistance in the most adverse circumstances, though also its
allow for handling the tension between macro-institutional forms and high costs.
multiple, diffuse armed conflicts. In the cases under analysis, however, the In chapter eleven, I present a detailed analysis of the participatory budget
consequence of such pacts is that the state acknowledges the power of armed of the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil, perhaps the instance of participatory
groups and the sacrifice of the democratic rights of citizens in the name of democracy that has earned the greatest recognition worldwide. I pay partic-
peace and the preservation of the community. In such conditions, the ular attention to the impact of the participatory budget on the distribution
"pactist" solutions, even though desirable at the national scale, may have of public resources in favor of the neediest social groups, to the mechanisms
perverse consequences at the local scale, compromising the possibility of of participation, and to the complex interactions between citizens,
emancipatory dynamics and maintaining the power of the armed groups and autonomous social movements, instances of participatory budgeting, the
those sectors of the society that resort to violence. Municipal Executive, and the Municipal Legislative Assembly.
In chapter eight, Maria Clemencia Ramirez analyzes the movement of In chapter twelve, Leonardo Avritzer compares the participatory budget
the Putumayo coca/eros (peasants who grow and gather coca) in Colombian of Porto Alegre with the budget of Belo Horizonte in order to show that
Amazonia. This is a civil movement fighting for citizenship rights vis-?t-vis the the elitist theories of democracy, so influential in the North, particularly in
state and especially the armed forces. The latter insist in doubly excluding the North America, are indeed negated by the experiences of participatory
peasants-as drug dealers and as complicit with the guerrillas. Taking advan- democracy; The latter have proved to be capable of handling administrative
tage of the participatory democratic spaces granted by the Constitution, the complexity at the same time that they renovate the political agenda by intro-
cocaleros' aim is to impose an alternative identity, that of a group of Putumayo ducing new principles of justice in the distribution of public resources.
citizens who are independent both of drug dealing and of the guerrillas. Chapter thirteen, by Patrick Heller and Thomas Isaac, introduces another
In chapter nine, Mauricio Romero studies the mobilization of the banana significant experiment in participatory democracy, the decentralized
workers in the Uraba region (Colombia), reporting the struggle waged by the planning of the state of Kerah, in India. This experiment, undertaken under
union of workers in the agribusiness industry (Sintrainagro) to raise the the auspices of the Communist Party of India-Marxist (CPM), consisted
sector's workers from the condition of subjects to the condition of citizens. in transferring investment decisions to local communities by means of mobi-
Romero describes the form in which the Uraba banana workers, used to lizing participation. The engagement of "civil society," formerly viewed with
playing the role of victims, managed to reach protection, security and polit- some suspicion, contributed to having actors and social groups, usually mar-
ical participation in exchange for loyalty to a "political-economic order" ginalized vis-J-vis the political process, effectively included. The articulation
controlled by the army and paramilitary forces. In their struggle for better between democracy and social justice was thereby deepened.
xiv PREFACE PREFACE XV

Chapter fourteen, written by Emir Sader, is a general commentary on the Volume four, entitled Voices rf the rl:Orld, is a diflcrent book from the
chapters included in this book. The author interpellates the texts from the previous ones. Rather than focusing on the scientific and social analysis of
standpoint of a broad political horizon in order to highlight themes and alternatives, it focuses on the discourse and practical knowledge of the pro-
problems that may escape analyses centered on case studies. tagonists of such alternatives. One of the core concerns of the project
As I have already mentioned, this volume is the first in a series of five Reinventing Social Emm1cipation is to contribute to renovating the social
volumes. A brief reference to the remaining volumes is therefore in order. sciences (see the Introduction). One of the paths of renovation resides in
Volun1e two, entitled Another Production is Possible: Beyond the Capitalist confronting the knowledge the social sciences produce with other knowl-
Canon, deals, on the one hand, with non-capitalist production alternatives edges-practical, plebeian, common, tacit knowledges-which, although
that for the past two decades have been gaining new life in their resistance being an integral part of of the social practices analyzed by the social sciences,
to the social exclusion and wild exploitation brought about by neoliberal are always ignored by the latter. In this book, voice is given to activist leaders
globalization; on the other hand, it deals with workers' new struggles against of social movements, initiatives and organizations, many of which are studied
such exploitation, pointing to a new labor internationalism. Alternative in the previous volumes. To this effect, long interviews were conducted and
models to capitalist development, generally known as solidary economy, are transcribed.
analyzed, and case studies of popular economic organizations, cooperatives, Finally, volume five, entitled Reinventi11g. Social Emancipation, presents my
communitarian or collective management of the land, and associations of theoretical, analytical, and epistemological retlection upon the major themes
local development are presented. Also analyzed are the new forms of the of this project and its main results. In addition, it reflects on the project itself
conflict between capital and labor, derived, on the one hand, from the end as the construction of a scientific community under conditions and accord-
of the Cold War and, on the other, from the fact that in the last two decades ing to rules largely outside the conventional models.
labor has become a global resource, yet without the emergence of a global Sixty-one researchers participated in this project; more than fifty-three
market. From this disjunction resulted the weakening of the union initiatives were analyzed. A project of such proportions was possible only
movement as we know it. Meanwhile, it is clear today that labor solidarity thanks to a demanding series of conditions. In the first place, adequate
is reconstituting itself under new forms, both on a local and national level, funding was available; I am most grateful to the MacArthur Foundation tor
as well as on a global level. The book deals in detail with some of these new financial support. Secondly, the project was made possible by a number of
forms. coordinators, one in each country, who helped me to select the themes and
Volume three, entitled Another Kno!llledge Is Possible: Beyond Northem researchers, and finally to bring the various strands of the research to con-
Epistemologies, tackles the struggles and politics of recognition of difference clusion. I was fortunate enough to have the collaboration of Sakhela
that in the past two decades have been confronting imperial identities, false Buhlungu in South Africa, Maria Celia Paoli in Brazil, Mauricio Garda
universalisms, the coloniality of power, and imperial epistemology, which are Villegas in Colombia, Shalini Randeria andAchyut Yagnik in India, and Teresa
as germane to historical capitalism as the exploitation of wage labor. The Cruz e Silva in Mozan1bique. My most heartfelt gratitude to all of them.
confrontation among rival knowledges and the more and more unequal This project would not have been possible without the support of a ded-
access to information and knmvledge as a consequence of the latter's global icated and highly competent Secretariat. Sllvia Ferreira, Paula Meneses and
mercantilization acquire special relevance. Such confrontation derives from Ana Cristina Santos shared administrative, scientific, and editorial tasks, but
the latest advances in biology, biotechnology and micro-electronics, which they all did a little bit of everything. In the course of three years, they accom-
have transformed the wealth of biodiversity into one of the most precious plished a remarkable amount of work, creating the best conditions to make
and sought after "natural resources." Since most of this biodiversity is located my meetings with the country coordinators and the researchers productive,
in countries of the South and sustained by popular, peasant or indigenous to meet all of the researchers' needs and requests, and to facilitate the pro-
knowledges, the issue (and the contlict) consists in deciding how to protect duction of all the texts. Theirs was a Herculean task, and I am only too happy
such biodiversity and such knowledges from the voracity with which the to mention this here in order to keep it from lying buried in the many pages
scientific, technological, and industrial knowledge transforms them into of this series of books.
patentable objects and knowledges. The struggles and movements for self- This project was based at the Center for Social Studies of the School of
determination and multicultural human rights are another object of study, Economics of the University of Coimbra and greatly benefited from the
as are the movements for the recognition of popular knowledges concern- support of the Executive Committee and its administrative staff. As usual,
ing biodiversity, medicine, environmental impact, and natural calamities. a very special word of thanks must go to Lassalete Simoes, my closest
xvi PREFACE

collabmator and dear friend of tnore than ten years. She is the recipient
of my most deeply felt gratitude.
The solidarity shown throughout by the governing bodies of the School
of Economics of the University of Coimbra was always encouraging, as was
the sympathy and support of my colleagues in the Department of Sociology,
a gift all the more appreciated for being increasingly so rare in academic
institutions. My sincere thanks to all of them.
Several translators collaborated with me in this volume, and I would like
to thank all of them: Martin Earl, David Hedges, Andy Klatt, Jenny Newton,
Lina Oliveira. Very special thanks to Mark Streeter, on whose generous time
and competence I counted during the last phases of the preparation of the
manuscript, and whose outstanding job as a copy-editor was invaluable.
Maria Irene Ramalho was ever an unobtrusive presence during the exe-
cution of this project. Thanking her, no matter how emphatically, would
always be less than adequate. She alone knows why.

Boaventura de Sousa Santos

Note

1 Besides this English edition, this series is also being published in Brazil
(Civilizac,:ao Brasileira), Mexico (Fonda de Cultura Econ6mica), Italy (Citta
Aperta Edizioni), and Portugal (Afrontamento).
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Reinventing Social En1ancipation:
Toward New Manifestos

Boauentura de Sousa Santos

Although neoliberal globalization-the current version of global capitalism-

is by far the dominant form of globalization, it is not the only one. Parallel
to it and, to a great extent, as a reaction to it, another globalization is
emerging. It consists of transnational networks and alliances among social
movements, social struggles, and non-governmental organizations. From the
four corners of the globe, all these initiatives have mobilized to fight against
the social exclusion, destruction of the environment and biodiversity, unem-
ployment, human rights violations, pandemics, and inter-ethnic hatreds,
directly or indirectly caused by neoliberal globalization.
Thus, there is an alternative, counter-hegemonic globalization, orga11ized
from the bottom up. Among its most salient manifestations one could
mention the protests in Seattle, in November 1999, against the meeting of
the WTO; several protests in the following years against the meetings of the
Multilateral Financial Institutions, the G-8, the European Union summits
and the World Economic Forum in Davos (fanuary 2000), Washington (April
2000), Melbourne (September 2000), Prague (September 2000), Nice
(December 2000), Quebec (April 2001), Gothenburg (fune 2001) and Genoa
(fuly 2001); and the three editions of the World Social Forum, in Porto
Alegre, in 2001,2002 and 2003. Alternative globalization is, however, a wider
phenomenon with deeper implications. It involves a great many initiatives,
struggles, and local organizations occurring in n~imy different parts of the
world, but often ignored by the corporate media. They are more or less
tightly connected through local-global alliances of different kinds.
The movement for an alternative globalization is a new political £1ct
focused on the idea that the current phase of global capitalism requires new
forms of resistance and new directions for social emancipation. From 'vi thin

I this movement, made up of a large number of social movements and NGOs,

new social agents and practices are emerging. They operate in an equally
xviii DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xix

new tiamework, networking local, national, and global struggles. The and forms of modernity, as well as many other forms of knowledge, that
problem 'vith these new social movements is that in order to do them justice are validated by criteria other than those of modern Western science. The
a new social theory and new analytical concepts are called for. Since neither epistemological diversity of the world is thus potentially infinite. All forms
the one nor the others emerge easily from the inertia of the disciplines, the of knowledge are contextual, and the more they claim not to be so, the more
risk that they may be undertheorized and undervalued is considerable. This they are. There is no pure or complete knowledge, only constellations of
risk is all the more serious as the counter-hegemonic globalization, given its knowledges. \Vithin these constellations, there ne hybridizations, which,
scope and internal diversity, not only challenges the various disciplines of the however, rather th:m contributing to the elimimtion of unequal power rela-
conventional social sciences, but challenges as well scientific knowledge as tiom, frequently lead to their entrenchment. Unequal relatiom can be defined
the sole producer of social and political rationality. To put it another way, the as the capacity of one form of knowledge to convert another into a resource
alternative globalization raises not only analytical and theoretical questions, or raw material. The constellations of knmvledges in the field of biodiver-
but also epistemological questions. This much is expressed in the idea, widely sity are only the most dramatic manifestation of an epistemologicJI inequality
shared by activists, that there will be no global social justice without global that permeates all the thematic areas covered by this research project.
cognitive justice. But the challenge posed by the alternative globalization has The recognition of other rival knmvledges, even if distorted, is one man-
one more dimension still. Beyond the theoretical, analytical and epistemo- ifestation of the crisis of epistemological confidence. But there are others.
logical questions, it raises a new political issue: it aims to fulfill utopia For instance, ecological disasters have shown that modern science has
("another world is possible") irt a world apparently devoid of utopias (TINA: expanded the capacity of human action much more efficiently than the
"there is no alternative"). The theme of this collection of books is alterna- capacity to predict the consequences of that action. For this reason, the con-
tive globalization. sequences of scientific action tend to be less scientific than the actions that
caused them. As the nexus of causality becomes volatile, the world is para-
doxically becoming overwhelmed 'vith the undesired consequences of
PREMISES AND CHALLENGES
desired actions.
There are two fundamental premises underlying this project, one epistemo- What is now new, therefore, is the recognition that there are rinl know l-
logic;J] ;1nd one socio-political. The epistemological premise is that science edges providing an alternative to modern science, and that, even within this
in general, and the social sciences in particular, are currently undergoing a science, there are alternatives to the dominant paradigms. With this, the
profound crisis of epistemological confidence. The promises that have given prospect of a multicultur;JI science, or rather, multicultural sciences, is today
legitimacy to the privileged epistemological position of scientific knowledge more likely than ever. However, this possibility is not distributed equally
since the nineteenth century-promises of peace, rationality, freedom, among different scientific communities. Its credibility decreases in inverse
equality, progress, and the sharing of progress-have not only failed to proportion to the hegemonic dominance of the scientific paradigm, with its
materialize even at the center of the world system, but have also been trans- strict and narrow divisions amongst disciplines, its positivist methodologies
formed in the countries on the periphery and semi periphery into an ideology that do not distinguish objectivity tiom neutrality, its bureaucratic and dis-
that legitimizes subordination to Western imperialism. In the name of criminatory organization of knmvledge into departments, laboratories and
modern science, many alternative knowledges and sciences have been faculties that reduce the adventure of knowledge to a matter of corporatist
destroyed, and the social groups that used these systems to support their ovvn privilege. This is why it is precisely in the center of the world system, in the
autonomous paths of development have been humiliated. In short, in the core countries ;md hegemonic centers of scientific production, that the
name of science, epistemicide has been committed, and the imperial powers c1pacity for true scientific innovation is today severely limited. New ide;Js,
have resorted to it to disarm any resistance of the conquered peoples and especially those that seek to bind science once ;1gain to its original promises,
social groups. rarely get past the g;1tekeepers and the demands of the market.
This imperial epistemology began to be consolidated in the middle of the This means that, although the loss of epistemological confidence ts
nineteenth century and dominated the whole of the twentieth century. What opening up spaces tor innovation, the critique of epistemology will be tor a
is new today? In the first place, it is now clearer than ever that the univer- long time much more advanced than the epistemology of criticism. In other
salism of modern science is a Western particularism, which has the power 'vords, it seems to me that, however lucid and radical our critique of the
to define all rival forms of knowledge as particular, local, contextual and sit- dominant scientific epistemology may be, our concrete work as soci;J] scien-
uational. Thus, there have been and there still are other, non-Western sciences tists will remain ch;1ined to the domin;Jnt paradigm, in terms of conceptual
xx DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xxi

and analytical methodologies as well as in terms of organizational and intensification of transnational relations that, together with the new com-
infrastructural conditions, to a much greater extent than we would be willing munication and information technologies, have produced profound changes
to admit. This will be particularly the case of scientific practices certified by on the spatial and temporal scales of social action. The protracted historical
the hegemonic centers of scientific produ~tion. For this reason, in order to duration of secular trends seems anachronistic in the face of the instanta-
maximize innovation, it is necessary to start from non-hegemonic scientific neous time of financial markets. But, on the other hand, the past, supposedly
communities. left behind, has made a comeback in the form of religious fundamentalism,
This is the context that gave rise to the first challenge of this project. It was unilateral pre-emptive aggt·essions and ethnic cleansing. Moreover, the cycles
conceived and executed outside the hegemonic centers of scientific produc- of political action have become short-circuited by the erosion of the national
tion by scientific communities from the semiperiphery and periphery of the unit of decision-making.
world system. Of course, this fact is not enough in itself to guarantee the Turbulence on the temporal scales has its counterpart in turbulence on
project's aim of scientific renovation. Mter all, social scientists are by and large the spatial scales. The local is increasingly the other side of the global, and
heirs to the hegemonic scientific paradigm (although some more reluctantly vice versa; also, the national space is being transformed into an instrument
than others). If this is the case, how can scientists working outside the hege- of mediation between the local and the global. Most importantly, this explo-
monic centers convert their ex-centricity and relative marginality into energy sion of scales has brought about both interdependence and disjunction. The
for innovation? And should this innovation be limited to the construction of feeling of disconnection and exclusion in relation to the transformations
new counter-hegemonic epistemologies or does it also have the potential to occurring in space and time has never been so profound. In other words,
become a new hegemony itself? And, if so, will the new hegemony be better never have so many social groups been so connected 'vith the rest of the
than the present one? From what point of view? And for whom? world by virtue of the intensification of their isolation; never have so many
Before discussing how it is possible to respond to this challenge, I will been integrated by virtue of the way in which their exclusion is deepened.
linger a little on the second premise of this project, which, as I have said, is A second new factor is the voracious 'vay in which hegemonic global-
of a socio-political nature. The successes of modern science are increasingly ization has come to devour not only its promises of progress, liberty, equality,
being measured by its capacity to subject ever more social relations in ever non-discrimination and rationality, but also the very idea of struggle for these
more parts of the world to the logic of global capitalism. This is the result objectives. Hegemonic social regulation is no longer undertaken in the name
of a long historical process that, since the fifteenth century, has had many of some tuture project. As such, it has delegitimized all alternative future
facets and assumed many names: discoveries, colonialism, evangelization, projects previously designated as projects of social emancipation. The auto-
slavery, imperialism, development and underdevelopment, modernization matic disorder of the financial markets is a metaphor for a form of social
and, finally, globalization. This project starts from the idea that neoliberal regulation that does not require the idea of social emancipation to sustain
globalization is not radically new: it is simply an exponential expansion of and legitimize itself. But, paradoxically, it is from within this void of regula-
transnational relations, leading to a transformation of the scales of the units tion and emancipation that initiatives, movements, and organizations have
of analysis and of the measures of social change that until now have prevailed arisen all over the world, struggling simultaneously against forms of regula-
in the economy, society, politics and culture. As has always been the case tion that do not regulate and against forms of emancipation that do not
throughout the history of modern capitalism and in all previous forms of emancipate.
globalization centered upon Asia, the Indian Ocean or the so-called Middle This leads to the second set of challenges that this project faced. Is it
East, what we mean by globalization refers in fact to clusters of unequal social possible to bring together what has been set asunder by hegemonic global-
relations, and thus it would be more correct to speak of globalizations rather ization and set asunder what has been brought together by it? Is this all that
than globalization. counter-hegemonic globalization entails? Is it possible to contest the forms
Since its beginnings, modern capitalism has been a project with a global of dominant social regulation and from there reinvent social emancipation?
vocation, and has always evolved through an intensification of global rela- Is not this reinvention just another trap that Western modernity has set for
tions. Furthermore, there has always been resistance to this dynamic and us at the moment when we thought it was entering its final stage? What
predatory project, from the slave revolts to the struggles for national libera- contribution do researchers make to meet these challenges?
tion, from workers' struggles to socialist projects, from new social movements I am convinced that it was fatal for modern science and for the social
to the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries. So, what is new about sciences in particular to have abandoned their aim of struggling toward a
the situation in which we find ourselves today is, first, the unprecedented fairer society. Barriers vvere set up between science and progressive politics,
xxii DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xxiii

knowledge and transformative action, rationality and the will to solidarity, less important than the recognition that this hierarchy exists and that it is
truth and virtue, which permitted scientists to become, in good conscience, becoming more marked. The hierarchy today is not only between countries;
mercenaries of the ruling powers. Is it possible to reconnect that which has it is bet\veen economic sectors, social groups, regions, knowledges, forms of
been so firmly separated? Is it possible to construct forms of knowledge that social organization, cultures, and identities. This hierarchy is the accumulated
are more committed to the human condition? Is it possible to do this in a effect of unequal relations between the dominant and dominated forms in
non-Northcentric and non-disciplinary way? each of these social fields.
From such premises and such enormous challenges, only ambitious objec- This hierarchy is today expressed in two ways: in the global-local
tives could result. This project has t\vo major objectives: first, to contribute dichotomy, in which the local is the subordinated counterpart of a reality or
to the renovation of the social sciences and, second, to contribute to the rein- entity that has the capacity to designate itself as global; and in the trichotomy
vention of social emancipation. These two objectives are in fact one: the of core, semiperiphery and periphery that is applied especially, though not
renovation of science that we seek has no other aim than the reinvention of exclusively, to countries. The project \Vas mainly focused on semiperipheral
social emancipation. countries, or, in other words, countries of intermediate development that are
also intermediaries in the regional-global linkages within the world system:
RENOVATING THE SOCIAL SCIENCES t\vo in Latin America (Brazil and Colombia); one in Asia (India); and one in
Africa (South Africa). The working hypothesis behind this choice was, on the
Considering the objectives above, the social sciences in which many of us one hand, that it is in these countries that the forces ofhegemonic and counter-
have been trained are more a part of the problem than of the solution. hegemonic globalization collide most intensely; and, on the other, that,
Nevertheless, as I have already indicated, there are today some conditions although these countries are outside the hegemonic centers of scientific pro-
that allow us to think of the possibility of renovating the social sciences. Such duction, over the years they have constructed strong and frequently numerous
conditions, in fact, made possible this project and rendered it consistent. scientific communities.
The first condition is a general one. We are in a phase of paradigmatic These scientific communities, more than any others, have operated under
transition. There is a crisis of epistemological confidence and the confronta- a double disjunction. First, the theories and analytical fi·ameworks developed
tion between rival knowledges is increasing. Dissidence within the scientific within core or hegemonic science have shown themselves to be inadequate
field is strong: forms of science-action, citizen science, popular science have for the analysis of the realities of their countries. Second, hegemonic science
been proposed; the multicultural character of science is being investigated; has shown either a passive inability or an active hostility to recognizing sci-
new connections bet\veen science and rival forms of knowledge have been entific work autonomously produced in these countries, if and when it flouts
suggested. In other words, there is an environment conducive to innovation, the methodological arid theoretical canons and terms of reference developed
which means that innovation will not be prematurely voted a failure. by the hegemonic centers of scientific production and exported (or imposed)
The second condition is more specific. This project brings together social by them at the global level.
science researchers in the South that have begun to question (frequently all The words of the Cuban literary critic Roberto Fernandez Retamar in
by themselves) the limits of their analytical tools and the possible uselessness Caliban and Other Essays about the colonial reader apply to the social scien-
of their work. Often they have agonized over selling their knowledge to tists of the semiperiphery better than to anyone else: "There is no one that
hegemonic interests, or cornn1itting themselves (for survival) to positions that knows the literature of the core countries better than the colonial reader."
betray their ideals of autonomy and political solidarity with the social strug- Indeed, the social scientists of the semiperiphery tend to know hegemonic
gles of the oppressed. This is the case when they are proletarianized as native science very \Veil, even better than the scientists of core countries, because
informants at the service of the global consultancy industry. they know its limitations and frequently seek ways of overcoming them. This
The social scientists involved in this project mostly are from and work in situation becomes more complex when it is compared to the situations of
semiperipheral countries. This was not a random choice. I am convinced social scientists of the core countries or to that of those in the peripheral
that the so-called new interdependencies created by information and com- countries. The former, in their overwhelming m;tiority, do not know (and if
munication capital, rather than eliminating the hierarchies in the world, have they do know, do not value) the scientific knowledge produced in the semi-
actually deepened them. The names we use to define this hierarchy are periphery or the periphery. It is considered inferior in everything th::~t is
important (developed and developing countries; First World and Third different or alternative. Therefore, it is easily cannibalized and converted into
World; North and South; rich countries and poor countries) but they are a resource or raw material by core science. In organizational terms, the result
xxiv DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xxv

is the proletarianization of peripheral and semi peripheral scientists. The social of this project was thus to be collectively constructed, from the bottom up,
scientists fi·om peripheral countries, in their turn, in addition to working under and the basic concepts to be worked out together. These violations of the
more precarious conditions and being subject to all kinds of persecutions, feel methodological canon were not committed lightly. The risk of chaos and
isolated, unaware of the work that is done in the semiperiphery; and when cacophony was there. I think, nonetheless, that, in the current conditions,
they manage to overcome their isolation, seek to compensate for it with an running that risk was and is the only alternative to the proletarianization
uncritical allegiance to core science. Mozambique was included in this project or "mercenarization" of science.
in order to illustrate the possibility of alternative relations between the peri- Still, against the grain of epistemological orthodoxy, this project explic-
phery and semiperiphery. itly assumed the plurality of rival and alternative knowledges, and sought to
The epistemological objective of this project was, therefore, to bring give voice to them, particularly through the sub-project Voices of tlze World.
together a significant number (or critical mass) of researchers mostly from The idea was to bring scientific knowledge face-to-face with non-scientitlc,
the semiperiphery and to have them work together in different countries explicitly local knowledges, knowledges grounded in the experience of the
and continents without the control of core science, in order to reclaim the leaders and activists of the social movements studied by the social scientists.
possibility of another kind of science, one that is less imperial and more mul- The protagonists of Voices q{ the Hlorld are activists and leaders of popular
ticultural and that accepts a more egalitarian relationship among scientists movements and organizations who have learned in the struggle of resistance
and among alternative forms of knowledge. Above all, this project aims to against hegemonic powers the practical knowledge that in the end moves
assert the possibility of putting this constellation ofknowledges at the service the world and, more than anything else, gives meaning to the \Vorld.
of the struggle against different forms of oppression and discrimination-in Finally, and also in deliberate disrespect of the canon, this project privi-
short, of putting it at the service of social emancipation. leged the detlnition of a vast analytical tleld, minimally burdened with
In this sense, the project is self-reflective about its innovative character. theoretical or empirical concepts, and detlned on general lines. It involved
Like all projects of this type, however, it may run the risks of failure for unfea- the identitlcation of social fields in which the conflict between hegemonic
sibility or facile success for hegemonic co-optation. Aware of these risks, we and counter-hegemonic globalization is expected to be or to become more
have taken some precautions, which, fi·om the perspective of hegemonic intense, and which are also tlelds of conflict bet\:v·een rival knowledges. It
science, will be seen as reckless violations of the methodological canon. also involved, in each social field, giving an analytical priority to the strug-
First, this project did not have a structured theoretical framework. Its gles that resist hegemonic globalization and propose alternatives to it.
concerns are anchored in my previous work, mainly in my book Toward a In giving priority to counter-hegemonic globalization, the objective was
New Common Smse: Law, Scimce and Politics in the Paradigmatic Transition. 1 I to contribute to the reinvention of social emancipation. In other words,
argue there that we are entering a period of paradignutic transition in law, science in this project involved the exercise of citizenship and solidarity, and
science, and politics, and that in such a context it is imperative to open up its quality was gauged ultimately by the quality of citizenship and solidarity
the theoretical, analytical and methodological canons as a condition for that it accounted for and promoted. Here lies the second objective of this
renovation and transformation. Thus, instead of a theoretical framework, the project: the reinvention of social emancipation.
project had a set of broad analytical orientations that constituted a horizon
within which various theoretical fi·ameworks could fall. These orientations
were expected to provide only a very loose guidance, having in mind that REINVENTING SOCIAL EMANCIPATION
this project brought together not only different scientific communities but There are three main difficulties raised by this objective, \vhich correspond
also different cultures. Just as an example, social emancipation is bound to to as many challenges. The first concerns the notion of counter-hegemonic
mean very different things in different social, political and cultural contexts. globalization itself. How can a cluster of initiatives or movements be con-
Second, this project did not impose a single method or a single set of research sidered a form of globalization? Many initiatives and movements that are
methods; it was open to different methodologies chosen by the researchers analyzed here are local and occur in very circumscribed time-spaces. In many
themselves. Third, it did not make use of a series of working hypotheses, of these cases, it is clearly possible to identifY connections and alli;mces with
and even less of terms of reference. Very deliberately, the project assumed other foreign or transnational initiatives or organizations, and thus it would
that the concerns and analytical horizons presented above were what was seem legitimate to speak of globalization. But, supposing that different ini-
strictly necessary to motivate social scientists to join forces in the pursuit of tiatives with features in common, such as occur in the area of participatory
objectives that are sufficiently important to be actively shared. The theory democracy, arise in the same period in dit1erent parts of the world, but
xxvi DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xxvii

without any mutual contact or knowledge, should we speak of globalization another social group or at a different moment in time)? Are all struggles
in such a case? against oppression, \vhatever their means and objectives, struggles for social
The dominant conception of counter-hegemonic globalization tends to emancipation? Are there degrees of social emancipation? Is it possible to have
be restricted to the activities and protests of transnational NGOs and social social emancipation without individual emancipation? For whom, for what,
movements. Undoubtedly, this transnational democratic movement of against whom, against what is social emancipation? Who are the agents of
activism without borders is a form of counter-hegemonic globalization. But social emancipation? Is there any one privileged agent? Can hegemonic social
we should not forget that this movement developed out of local initiatives and institutional forces such as the State ever be partners or active collabo-
designed to mobilize local struggles to resist translocal, national or global rators in actions of social emancipation? If they can, for what types of actions
powers. Focusing too much upon dramatic actions of a global nature (actions and under what conditions?
that usually occur in cities of core countries and that thus attract the atten- If we speak of the reinvention of social emancipation, does this mean that
tion of the global media) might make us forget that resistance to oppression there have been other forms of emancipation before the one for which we
is a daily task, undertaken by anonymous people away from the gaze of the are now fighting? How should those previous forms be defined? Why did
media; indeed, without this resistance, the transnational democratic they cease to be credible? How should their failure be defined? Are we strug-
movement could not and would not be sustained. In my view, we are entering gling for new contents of social emancipation or for the old contents,
an era in which the dialectics of the local and the global replaces the presented through new discourses or pursued through new processes? More
dichotomy between the local and the global. Accordingly, in our time, social radically, in speaking of social emancipation, are we not speaking the hege-
emancipation involves a dual movement of de-globalization of the local monic language that made unpronounceable the aspirations of so many
(vis-a-vis hegemonic globalization) and its re-globalization (as part of peoples and social groups subjugated by North-centric science and political
counter-hegemonic globalization). economy? Are we running the risk of promoting social oppression , ..-hile
If it is difficult to define the contours of what is considered local or global, using the language of social emancipation? As an alternative, could we reach
then it is even more difficult to define what is considered hegemonic or our scientific and political goals without using the concept of social eman-
counter-hegemonic. It is all too easy to define as counter-hegemonic all ini- cipation at all? Many of these issues were discussed in seminars conducted
tiatives that resist the logic of global capitalism and create alternatives to it. within the ambit of the project in the different coui1tries in question. Many
We know that oppression and domination have many faces and that not all of them are approached again in chapters of the first three volumes of this
of them are the direct or exclusive result of global capitalism (think of sexual series. In the fifth and last volume, I shall ofler some of my answers.
discrimination, ethnic discrimination or xenophobia, or even epistemologi- The third difficulty and the third challenge to my mind are the most
cal arrogance). It is, indeed, possible that some initiatives that present dilemmatic but also the most interesting of all. They concern the choice of
themselves as alternatives to global capitalism are themselves a form of oppres- themes proposed with the intention both of trying out new w;~ys of pro-
sion. In addition, an initiative that is perceived as counter-hegemonic in a ducing knowledge and of examining their possibilities for social
particular country or community at a particular moment may be seen in emancipation. The five themes proposed were: participatory democracy;
another country or at another moment as hegemonic. Finally, counter- alternative production systems; new labor internationalism; emancipatory
hegemonic initiatives and movements may be co-opted by hegemonic glob- multiculturalism, cultural justice and citizenship; and biodiversity and recog-
alization, without this being noticed by activists, or without them perceiving nition of rival knowledges. Why were these themes chosen and not others?
it as a failure; indeed, it may even be seen as a victory. Why were they ;~nalyzed in the chosen countries ;~nd not in others? If it is
The second great difficulty (and challenge, therefore) is the connection true that globalization produces localization, and that it produces homoge-
that we wish to make between counter-hegemonic globalization and social nization as much as diflerentiation, is it possible that these themes have the
emancipation. What, after all, is social emancipation? Is it possible or legit- same relevance in difierent countries? Indeed, is it possible that they have
imate to define it in the abstract? If it is true that there is not one but various the same meaning at all? If it is possible to detect any coherence between
globalizations, is it not equally true that there is not one but many forms of them, could this coherence be established without recourse to ;t general
social emancipation? Just like science, is not social emancipation multicul- theory? Is there an alternative to the general theory, for example, a work of
tural, definable and valid only in certain contexts, places and circumstances intercultural tr;~nslation capable of creating intelligibility ::~mong the differ-
(since what is social emancipation for one social group or at a particular his- ent themes, struggles, movements, and pr;~ctices, without canceling out their
torical moment may be considered regulation or even social oppression for autonomy and diversity?
xxviii DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xxix

The themes were proposed by me as those in which, in my opinion, epis- ronment and biodiversity, unemployment, human rights violations, pan-
temological, socio-economic, cultural and political conflicts between North demics, and inter-ethnic hatreds directly or indirectly caused by neoliberal
and South, center and periphery, are today most intense and will continue globalization. Thus, there is an alternative, counter-hegemonic globalization,
to be so in the next decades. This is the result of an empirical observation emerging from the bottom up. The central theme of this research project is
that has not yet been adequately theorized. This observation did not in any alternative globalization. Hence its title: Reinventing Social Emancipation.
way impose the specific choice of countries that was made. The focus on
semiperipheral countries was theoretically informed as explained above. In 2. In the coming decades, the conflicts between these two kinds of global-
addition to this, I wanted to include a semiperipheral country from each of ization are going to set the political agenda at the international, national and
the following three geo-regional blocks: the Americas, Asia and Africa, the even local levels. These conflicts will tend to be most acute in the semipe-
latter being an extreme example of integration by exclusion, This choice ripheral countries, those countries of intermediate development, between
resulted from previous studies of mine in which I sought to show that the the core and the periphery of the world system. Particularly in semiperiph-
semiperipheral countries assume the roles of intermediaries and have very eral countries with large populations, the exclusionary effect of the
distinct socio-political characteristics according to the regional bloc in prescriptions of neoliberal globalization may have a worldwide impact.
which they are found. These differences are essentially the result of the accu-
mulated effects of previous globalizations in each country and the twists 3. The conflicts between globalizations, in short, between North and South,
and turns of the specific historical trajectory by means of which these coun- are going to be focused on certain issues. Some have evolved from older
tries have come into contact (usually by force) with Western modernity. conflicts that go back to the colonial period, while others are relatively recent.
According to this criterion, it would have been possible to select various In all of these issues the conflicts reflect unequal power relations. These con-
other countries. My choices were made for basically pragmatic reasons. flicting issues are addressed in this project through the emancipatory
Some were countries in which I had already done research (Brazil and alternatives that have been put fonvard by subaltern social groups. The
Colombia), and others were not at all fan1iliar to me but, for some reason, thematic areas of the project are as follows: participatory democracy; alter-
attracted me powerfully (as was the case of India and South Africa). native production systems; new labor internationalism; em;~i1cipatory
Mozambique, a peripheral country \vhere I had also done research, was multiculturalism, cultural justice and citizenship; protection of biodiversity
included in the project to illustrate, as I mentioned above, the counter-hege- and the recognition of rival knowledges (more on this below).
monic potential of initiatives and movements in peripheral countries and
to signal the strategic importance oflocal-globallinkages between semipe- 4. Being produced in the core countries and in the hegemonic centers of
ripheral and peripheral countries, that is, the importance of South-South scientific production, the social sciences tend to be North-centered and as
cooperation. such are very inadequ;~te to the task of giving a reli;~ble ;~ccount of soci;-~1
transformations occurring in the South. In contrast, the social-scientific pro-
duction of countries of intermediate development is at present extremely
CONCLUSION
valuable, although it is little known and rarely acknowledged by the hege-
By way of conclusion, I shall state here succinctly the set of analytical ori- monic centers of scientific production. This science produced in the South
entations presented by me to the project researchers, as well as a brief is not only valuable in itself. Once duly noted and credited, it can bring con-
description of the five themes that originated the case studies. siderable contributions to the scientific community in general. Resorting to
it may amount to creating a new critical mass generating new research topics
and new analytical perspectives, thereby enriching the social sciences as a
Analytical orientations
whole the world over.
1. Although neoliberal globalization is by far the dominant form of global-
ization, it is not the only one. Parallel to it and, to a great extent, as a reaction 5. Aside from being North-centric and part and parcel of an imperial epis-
to it, another globalization is emerging that consists of transnational temology, the social sciences have also been too concerned with quasi-sterile
networks and alliances among social movements, social struggles, and non- theoretical discussions, such as the relation between structure and agency or
governmental organizations, which have been mobilizing themselves in the between macro- and microanalysis. In my vie,.,·, the central focus should
past two decades to fight against social exclusion, the destruction of the envi- rather be on the distinction between conformist action and rebellious action.
xxx DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xxxi

This distinction is sustained in practice by behavior and attitudes vis-a-vis the of democratic rule. The tension between counter-hegemonic forms ofhigh-
forms and dynamics of power circulating in society. These forms of power- intensity democracy and hegemonic forms of low-intensity democracy lies
be they patriarchy, exploitation, commodity fetishism, unequal differentiation at the core of alternative globalization.
of identity, domination, and unequal exchange2_are confirmed and rein-
forced by conformist actions and contested and undermined by rebellious 2. Altemative productio11 systems. Debates about counter-hegemonic global-
actions. The struggles and initiatives in each of the five social fields confront ization tend to focus mainly on social, political, or cultural initiatives. Only
one or another of these forms of power in different ways. The focus on rebel- rarely do they focus on economic initiatives. By economic initiatives is meant
lious action in this project entails a radical proposition: namely, that there is local/global initiatives that consist in non-capitalist production and distribu-
social emancipation only if there is resistance to all forms of power. A strategy tion of goods and services, both in rural and urban contexts: cooperatives,
that is overly centered upon the struggles against one single form of power, mutualities, credit systems, cultivation oflands occupied by landless peasarits,
neglecting all the others, however noble the intentions of activists, may con- systems of water distribution, fishing communities, ecological exploration of
tribute to increasing instead of relieving the global burden of oppression that the forests, etc. These are the initiatives in which the linkages between the
subaltern social groups have to bear in their daily lives. local and the global are harder to establish, if for nothing else because they
face more fi·ontally the logic of global capitalism behind hegemonic global-
6. Throughout the world, social practices are ruled by ordinary, traditional, ization, not only at the level of production but also at the level of distribution.
commonsensical knowledges outside the ambit of what is accepted as scien- Another important facet of alternative modes of production is that they are
tific knowledge. In most countries of the South, scientific knowledge has never exclusively economic in nature. They mobilize social and cultural
had very little impact on the lives of ordinary people and, even when it does, recourses that render the inter-thematic linkages a necessary condition of
it fails to account for the needs and aspirations of local populations. These their success. A market economy is indeed possible and even, within limits,
are often better served by local knowledges. Without discarding the value desirable. On the contrary, a market society, as heralded by hegemonic glob-
of scientific knowledge, it is imperative to bring it face to face with lay and alization, is morally repugnant and most probably ungovernable. It entails a
local knowledges, knowledges grounded in the experience of the leaders and situation that I have designated as social fascism (Santos, 2002: 447).
activists of the social movements, knowledges and wisdoms of individuals
and groups that continue to embody the alternative globalization. 3. New labor intemationalism. Labor internationalism was one of most patently
unfulfilled previsions of the Communist Manifesto. Capital globalized itself,
not the labor movement. On the contrary, the labor movemellt organized
Main themes
itself at the national level and, at least in the core countries, became increas-
1. Participatory democracy. Along with the hegemonic model of democracy ingly dependent on the wel£1re state. To be sure, in the twentieth century
(liberal, representative democracy), other, subaltern models of democracy the international organizations and liaisons kept the idea of international
have always coexisted, however marginalized or discredited. We live in par- labor struggles alive, yet they became hostage to the Cold \Var, and their fate
adoxical times: at the very moment of its most convincing triumphs across was that of the Cold W.1r. After the end of the Cold War, and in response
the globe, liberal democracy becomes less and less credible and convincing to the most aggressive thrusts ofhegemonic globalization, new forms ofinter-
not only in the "new frontier" countries but also in the countries where it nationallabor struggle have emerged, but they are still extremely precarious:
has its deepest roots. The t\vin crises of representation and participation are a new and socially more inclusive debate on labor standards; international
the most visible symptoms of such a deficit of credibility, as well as, in the cooperation among unions concerning codes of conduct ;md the living wage;
last instance, of legitimacy. Furthermore, local, regional and national com- agreements on institutional cooperation among unions of different coun-
munities in different parts of the \vorld are undertaking democratic tries within the same regional economic block (NAFTA, European Union,
experiments and initiatives, based on alternative models of democracy, in Mercosul); articulation among the struggles, claims and demands of the
which the tension between capitalism and democracy is reborn as a positive various unions that represent the workers of the same multinational corpo-
energy behind new, more inclusive and more just social contracts, no matter ration in different countries; new forms of a more plural and inclusive labor
how locally bounded they may be. In some countries, traditional forms of activism that is more focused on issues of citizenship and encompassing the
authority and government are being re-evaluated in terms of their potential most severely marginalized sectors, such as the unemployed, immigrants,
for transformation from within, and for being articulated with other forms women and those working for the growing informal sector. In a more fi·ontal
xxxii DEMOCRATIZING DEMOCRACY BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS xxxiii

way than the alternative systems of production, the new forms of labor spectacular and lucrative product developments of the next decades. As a
struggle face the logic of global capitalism in the latter's privileged turf, the rule, biodiversity occurs in the South and mainly in lands historically owned
economy, but their success depends more and more on the "extra-economic" by indigenous peoples. While technologically advanced countries try to
bonds that they manage to construct along with the struggles in the other broaden intellectual property rights and the right to patent biodiversity, some
social fields included in this project. peripheral countries, indigenous movements, and solidary NGOs try to guar-
antee the preservation and reproduction of biodiversity by protecting the
4. Emancipatory multiculturalism, cultural citizenship and justice. The crisis of land, ways of life, and traditional knowledges of the indigenous and peasant
Western modernity shows that the failure of the progressive projects toward communities. The most recent cleavages between the North and the South
the improvement of the opportunities and living conditions of subordinate concern largely the issue of access to biodiversity on a global scale. Although
groups, inside and outside the Western world, was in part due to a lack of all the topics included in this project raise epistemological problems to the
cultural legitimacy. This is true even of human rights movements. The uni- extent that they state the validity ofknowledges that have been rejected by
versality ofhuman rights must not be taken for granted, for the idea ofhuman hegemonic scientific knowledge, biodiversity is probably the topic in 'vhich
dignity may be formulated in different "languages." Rather than being sup- the clash among rival knowledges is more obvious, and probably more
pressed in the name of postulated universalisms, differences must become unequal. It is also the topic in which the confrontation between hegemonic
mutually intelligible through translation work. Since the construction of globalization and counter-hegemonic globalization is more violent, as
modern nations was mainly accomplished by crushing the cultural and witness the current designations ofbio-imperialism and bio-piracy.
national identities of minorities (and often even majorities), recognizing
multiculturalism and multinationality carries with itself an aspiration toward Topic one, concerning participatory democracy, is treated in volume one of
self-determination. The case of indigenous peoples is in this regard extremely this series. Topics two, on alternative production systems, and three, on new
significant. Even though cultures are relative, relativism is wrong, both as a labor internationalism, are dealt v.rith in volume two, while topics four, on
philosophical and a political stance. In this regard, the potential for a counter- emancipation and citizenship, and five, on biodiversity and rival knowledges,
hegemonic globalization resides in developing criteria to distinguish are discussed in volume three.
emancipatory from reactionary forms of multiculturalism and self-
determination. Aspiring to multiculturalism and self-determination often
Notes
takes on the social form of a struggle for justice and citizenship, implying
calling for alternative forms of law and justice, and new systems of citizen- A highly revised edition, titled Toward a New Legal Commo11 Sense: Lau~
ship. The plurality of juridical orders, made visible by the crisis of the Globalization and Emancipation, was published by Butterworths (London,
nation-state, carries in itself, whether explicitly or implicitly, the idea of 2002).
multiple citizenships coexisting in the same geopolitical field. In conditions 2 On these forms of power see Santos, 1995: 403-455 and Santos, 2002:
to be made explicit, non-state juridical orders may be the embryo of non- 353-416.
state public spheres, as well as the institutional basis of self-determination, as
is the case of indigenous justice. This will be so, however, only if the forms
References
of informal, local and popular communitarian justice are an integral part of
the struggles or initiatives occurring in the remaining social fields. For Retamar, Roberto Fernandez (1989). Calibmt and Other Essays. Trans. Echvard
instance, popular or communitarian justice as part of initiatives of participa- Baker. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P.
tory democracy, and indigenous justice as a component of self-determination Santos,Boaventura de Sousa (1995). Toward a New Common Sense: LauJ, Science
or the conservation of biodiversity. and Politics in the Paradigmatic Tt·ansitio11. New York: Routledge.
- (2002). Toward a New Legal Common Smse: Lauj Globalization mzd
5. The difense ~fbiodiversity and the stntgglefor the recognition rif rival know/edges. Emancipation. London: Buttenvorths.
Thanks to the progress observed in the last decades in the life sciences,
biotechnology, and micro-electronics, biodiversity is one of the most precious
and sought-after "natural resources." For pharmaceutical and biotechno-
logical firms, biodiversity increasingly appears at the center of the most
 BOAVENTURA DE SOUSA SANTOS and LEONARDO AVRITZER xxxv

typology according to which countries with or without democratic leanings

could be identified. For Moore, there was a set of structural characteristics
that explained the low democratic density in the second half of the twenti-
INTRODUCTION eth century: the role of the state in the process of modernization and its
Opening Up the Canon relation with the agrarian classes; the relation between the agrarian and urban
sectors and the level of rupture provoked by the peasants in the course of
of Detnocracy the modernization process (Moore, 1966). Moore's objective was to explain
why most countries were not, and could not become, democratic without
a change in existing conditions.
Boaventura de Sousa Sa11tos and Leonardo Avritzer Meanwhile, a second issue was linked \vith the debate about the
structural requirements of democracy-the issue of the redistributive
potentialities of democracy. The debate about this issue stemmed from the
assumption that as certain countries won the battle for democracy they,
along with the form of government, began to enjoy a certain distributive
propensity characterized by the arrival of social democracy to power
When recently asked what had been the most important event of the twen- (Przeworski, 1984). There would be, therefore, a tension between capital-
tieth century, Amartya Sen immediately replied: the emergence of ism and democracy, which, once resolved in favor of democracy, would
democracy (1999: 3). With a more pessimistic view of the twentieth century, place limits on property and imply distributive gains for underprivileged
Immanuel Wallerstein also recently questioned how it was possible that social sectors. Ivlarxists, in their turn, understood that this solution
democracy had changed from a revolutionary aspiration in the nineteenth demanded a total reformulation of democracy, given that in capitalist soci-
century to a universally adopted, though empty, slogan in the twentieth eties it was not possible to democratize the fundamental relation between
century (2001: 1). What these two positions have in common, despite sig- capital and labor on which material production was based. As a result of
nificant ditl:erences, is the assumption that democracy has played a central this, in the scope of this debate, alternative models to liberal democracy
role in politics during the twentieth century. Whether it continues to do so were discussed: participatory democracy, popular democracy in the coun-
in the century we have now entered remains to be seen. tries of Eastern Europe, developmental democracy in countries that had
The twentieth century was, in fact, one of intense dispute about the recently gained independence.
question of democracy. This dispute, which took place at the end of both The discussion on democracy in the last decade of the twentieth century
world wars and throughout the period of the Cold War, involved two main changed the terms of the post-war debate. The extension of the hegemonic
debates. In the first half of the century, the debate was centered on whether liberal model to the south of Europe, still in the 1970s, and later to Latin
democracy was desirable (Weber, 1919; Schmitt, 1926; Kelsen, 1929; Michels, America and Eastern Europe (O'Donnell, Schmitter et al., 1986) made
1949; Schumpeter, 1942). 1 If, on the one hand, this debate was resolved in Moore's analysis outdated. The perspectives on democracy in the second half
favor of the desirability of democracy as a form of government, on the other, of the twentieth century, with their discussions of the structural impediments
the proposal that became hegemonic at the end of the Second World War of democracy, seem somewhat irrelevant, given that dozens of countries have
implied a restriction of broad forms of participation and sovereignty in favor begun the process of democratization. There are enormous differences both
of a consensus on electoral processes to form govermnents (Schumpeter, in the role played by the rural classes and in the processes of urb~mization in
1942). This was the hegemonic form of democratic practice in the post-war these countries. Amartya Sen is among those who celebrate the loss of cred-
period, particularly in countries that became democratic after the second ibility of the idea of structural conditions v.rhen he states that the question is
wave of democratization. not whether a given country is prepared fot democracy, but rather that one
A second debate permeated the discussion on democracy in the post- should begin from the assumption that any country prepares itself through
Second World War period. This debate was about the structural conditions democracy (1999: 4). Furthermore, with the dismantling of the welfare state
of democracy (Moore, 1966; O'Dom1ell, 1973; Przeworski, 1984) and also and with the reduction of social policies in the 1980s, the analyses of the irre-
about the compatibility of democracy and capitalism (Wood, 1966). 2 versible distributive effects of democracy by authors such as Przeworski or
Barrington Moore generated this debate in the 1960s by presenting a Lipset seemed to be unconfirmed. Thus, the discussion about the structural
Other documents randomly have
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 Immunology - Lecture Notes
Second 2022 - Institute

Prepared by: Prof. Garcia

Date: July 28, 2025

Part 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics

Learning Objective 1: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 5: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 6: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 8: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Summary 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Practice Problem 10: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 3: Current trends and future directions
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 24: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 26: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 29: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 34: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 36: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 37: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Exercise 5: Literature review and discussion
Practice Problem 40: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 44: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 6: Experimental procedures and results
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 57: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 58: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Unit 7: Practical applications and examples
Example 60: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 67: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 69: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 8: Historical development and evolution
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 72: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 74: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 75: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
References 9: Theoretical framework and methodology
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 82: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 83: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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