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African Archaeology

Research in Africa is now accepted as an integral part of global archaeological

studies. As well as providing archaeologists with their oldest material, Africa is
also widely recognised as the birthplace of modern humans and their charac-
teristic cultural patterns. Archaeological study of later periods provides unique
and valuable evidence for the development of African culture and society, while
ongoing research in Africa provides insights relevant to the interpretation of
the archaeological record in other parts of the world. In this fully revised
and expanded edition of his seminal archaeological survey, David Phillipson
presents a lucid and fully illustrated account of African archaeology from pre-
history and the origins of humanity to the age of European colonisation. The
work spans the entire continent from the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good
Hope and demonstrates the relevance of archaeological research to the under-
standing of Africa today.

DAV I D W. P H I L L I P S O N F B A is Professor of African Archaeology and

Director of the Museum of Archaeology & Anthropology at the University of
Cambridge. He is a Fellow of Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge.
Frontispiece The principal physical features of Africa
African Archaeology
Third edition

DAV I D W. P H I L L I P S O N
University of Cambridge
  
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521832366

© Cambridge University Press 1985, 1993, 2005

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2005

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To Laurel
 Contents

List of illustrations ix
Sources of illustrations xiii

Preface xv

1 Introduction 1
Elucidating the African past 1
Archaeology in Africa 3
Linguistics 6
Oral traditions 9
Ethnoarchaeology 10
Africa in world prehistory 10

2 The emergence of humankind in Africa 15

Definition and process 15
World-wide precursors of the hominids 20
The earliest hominids 22
The oldest discoveries in eastern Africa 32
The Lake Turkana Basin and Olduvai Gorge 34
Central and south-central Africa 42
South Africa 42
The earliest tool-makers 47

3 The consolidation of basic human culture 52

Acheulean and Sangoan in Africa 52
Acheulean in eastern Africa 60
Acheulean in south-central Africa 68
Acheulean in southern Africa 73
Acheulean in West Africa and the Sahara 75
Acheulean in North Africa 77
Sangoan assemblages 81
Acheulean/Sangoan artefacts and their makers 84

4 Regional diversification and specialisation 91

The ‘Middle Stone Age’ and the ‘Late Stone Age’ 91
Southern Africa 96
South-central Africa 108
Rock art in southern and south-central Africa 111
Central Africa 116
Eastern Africa 122

vii
viii Contents

West Africa 128

North Africa and the Sahara 131
Changing life-styles and technology 141

5 The beginnings of permanent settlement 147

North Africa, the Sahara and the Nile Valley 147
East Africa 156
Overview 159
African peoples 10,000 years ago 160

6 Early farmers 165

Cultivation and herding 165
The Sahara and North Africa 172
The Nile Valley 181
West and Central Africa 195
Ethiopia and the Horn 203
East Africa 206

7 Iron-using peoples before ad 1000 214

Iron 214
North Africa 216
Egypt and the Arab invasion 221
The Sudan 224
Ethiopia and adjacent regions 228
West Africa 234
Central Africa 245
Eastern and southern Africa 249
The contribution of Bantu linguistic studies 261
Mode of dispersal 265
Madagascar and the Comoro Islands 269
Stone-tool-using herders of southwestern Africa 269

8 The second millennium ad in sub-Saharan Africa 274

The last 1000 years 274
West Africa 275
Ethiopia, the southern Sudan and adjacent regions 284
The east coast of Africa 288
Bantu-speakers north of the Zambezi 291
Southeastern Africa 297
Southwestern Africa 307
Epilogue 308

Bibliographic guide 310

Bibliographic references 311

Index 369
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 Illustrations

Frontispiece The principal physical features of Africa ii

Fig. 1 The classification of recent African languages 7
Fig. 2 Africa’s major language families in recent times 7
Fig. 3 Modes of lithic technology 12
Fig. 4 Geological periods of the last 24 million years 21
Fig. 5 Classification of the order Primates 21
Fig. 6 Tentative ‘family tree’ of African hominids 23
Fig. 7 Geological, magnetic and oxygen isotope subdivisions 25
Fig. 8 Climate and phases of accelerated evolution 26
Fig. 9 Skulls from Sterkfontein, Olduvai and Koobi Fora 30
Fig. 10 Skeletons of gorilla, Australopithecus and Homo sapiens 31
Fig. 11 Sites of Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Oldowan artefacts 33
Fig. 12 Hominid footprints at Laetoli dated to about 3.8 million years ago 35
Fig. 13 Mode-1 artefacts from Hadar, Koobi Fora and Omo Valley 36
Fig. 14 Stratigraphy of the Koobi Fora Formation 37
Fig. 15 Olduvai Gorge 40
Fig. 16 Stone circle at site DK in Bed I, Olduvai Gorge 41
Fig. 17 Breccia and travertine at Taung 43
Fig. 18 Ages of the South African australopithecine sites 45
Fig. 19 Horn and bone tools from Swartkrans 46
Fig. 20 Oldowan artefacts from site DK, Olduvai Gorge 48
Fig. 21 Acheulean-type artefacts from Montagu Cave 54
Fig. 22 Principal Acheulean and related sites in Africa 56
Fig. 23 Core preparation 57
Fig. 24 Air view of the Victoria Falls 59
Fig. 25 Artefacts of the Karari industry from Koobi Fora 61
Fig. 26 Homo ergaster from the Lake Turkana Basin 61
Fig. 27 Stone artefacts from Bed II at Olduvai Gorge 63
Fig. 28 The archaeological sequence at Olduvai Gorge 64
Fig. 29 The Bodo skull 65
Fig. 30 Acheulean-type artefacts preserved at Olorgesailie 66
Fig. 31 The 220-metre-high Kalambo Falls 69
Fig. 32 Wooden objects from Acheulean levels at Kalambo Falls 71
Fig. 33 Skull from Broken Hill Mine, Kabwe 72
Fig. 34 Wonderwerk Cave 74
Fig. 35 The ‘Victoria West technique’ 75
Fig. 36 West African Acheulean-type artefacts 76
Fig. 37 Artefacts from Ain Hanech and Sidi Zin 79
Fig. 38 Mandible of Homo ergaster from Ternifine 80
Fig. 39 Deposits exposed at Sidi Abderrahman quarry 80
Fig. 40 The distribution of principal Sangoan sites 82
Fig. 41 Sangoan artefacts from Luangwa Valley and Kalambo Falls 83

ix
x List of illustrations

Fig. 42 Early traditions of lithic technology 85

Fig. 43 Mounted microliths 93
Fig. 44 The Klasies River Mouth sites before excavation 98
Fig. 45 Mode-3 and mode-5 artefacts from southern Africa 99
Fig. 46 Mode-3 and related industries in southernmost Africa 101
Fig. 47 Ochre with carved lines, from Blombos Cave 102
Fig. 48 Sibudu Cave 103
Fig. 49 Kalemba rockshelter during excavation 106
Fig. 50 Early mode-5 artefacts from Kalemba 109
Fig. 51 Artefacts from Gwisho 110
Fig. 52 Early paintings from ‘Apollo 11 Cave’, Namibia 112
Fig. 53 Naturalistic rock paintings at Makwe, Zimbabwe 113
Fig. 54 Rock painting at Mpongweni, KwaZulu-Natal 114
Fig. 55 Line-engraving from Doornkloof, South Africa 115
Fig. 56 Pecked engravings, Klipfontein, Northern Cape 115
Fig. 57 Rock paintings showing people in trance 116
Fig. 58 South African schematic rock paintings 117
Fig. 59 Occurrences of post-Acheulean/Sangoan stone industries 119
Fig. 60 Lupemban artefacts 123
Fig. 61 Artefacts from Gobedra and Gamble’s Cave 126
Fig. 62 Mode-3 artefacts from Nigeria 129
Fig. 63 West African mode-5 artefacts 130
Fig. 64 Aterian artefacts from Bir el Ater and Adrar Bous 132
Fig. 65 Artefacts from Haua Fteah 135
Fig. 66 Oranian and Capsian artefacts 137
Fig. 67 Capsian carvings on stone and ostrich-eggshell 138
Fig. 68 Khormusan and Halfan artefacts from Nubia 140
Fig. 69 Location of settlement sites discussed in chapter 5 148
Fig. 70 Rock engraving of long-horned Bubalus antiquus 151
Fig. 71 Stone structures at Ti-n-Torha rockshelter, Acacus 152
Fig. 72 Pottery from Amekni 153
Fig. 73 Khartoum-related and Shamarkian artefacts 154
Fig. 74 Artefacts from Early Khartoum 155
Fig. 75 Old beach deposits at Lowasera 157
Fig. 76 Artefacts from Lowasera 158
Fig. 77 Location of rock art, early cultivation and herding 166
Fig. 78 Areas of domestication of indigenous African crops 168
Fig. 79 Rock engravings at Jebel Uweinat 174
Fig. 80 Artefacts from Adrar Bous 177
Fig. 81 Round-headed painted figure, Tassili 178
Fig. 82 Rock painting of a pastoral scene, Tassili 179
Fig. 83 Dhar Tichitt stone enclosures 180
Fig. 84 Artefacts from Esh Shaheinab 182
Fig. 85 A-Group artefacts from the Wadi Halfa area 184
Fig. 86 Brick substructure of royal burial mound at Kerma 186
Fig. 87 The temples at Abu Simbel 187
Fig. 88 Pre-Dynastic Egyptian artefacts 188
Fig. 89 The chronology of ancient Egypt 190
Fig. 90 Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing 191
 List of illustrations xi

Fig. 91 Egyptian royal tombs 192

Fig. 92 Relief carving at Kalabsha, Nubia 193
Fig. 93 The Eighteenth-Dynasty pharaoh, Tuthmosis III 194
Fig. 94 Sorghum 196
Fig. 95 Traditional yam-storage in eastern Nigeria 197
Fig. 96 Shell middens on the coast of Senegal 199
Fig. 97 Artefacts from Kintampo sites 200
Fig. 98 Excavation through deep deposits at Daima 201
Fig. 99 Rock paintings of domestic cattle 205
Fig. 100 Representations of Punt and its inhabitants 206
Fig. 101 Stone bowl from North Horr 207
Fig. 102 Artefacts from Hyrax Hill, Kenya 209
Fig. 103 Nderit ware pottery 210
Fig. 104 Traditional African iron-smelting, Ghana 215
Fig. 105 Rock painting of a horse-drawn chariot, Acacus 217
Fig. 106 Greek and Phoenician colonies in North Africa 218
Fig. 107 Ruins of the Roman city of Timgad, Algeria 220
Fig. 108 Septimius Severus 220
Fig. 109 Map of Africa by Ptolemy of Alexandria 222
Fig. 110 The mosque of Sidi Okba at Qayrawan 223
Fig. 111 Meroitic temple at Naqa 225
Fig. 112 Meroitic cursive script 226
Fig. 113 Early metal-working and modern vegetation 227
Fig. 114 Fresco from Faras cathedral 228
Fig. 115 Pre-Aksumite altar from Addi Gelemo, Ethiopia 229
Fig. 116 Aksumite gold coin of King Endybis 230
Fig. 117 The third-largest Aksumite stela 231
Fig. 118 Artefacts from Jebel Moya 233
Fig. 119 Nok terracotta heads 235
Fig. 120 Reconstruction of a Taruga iron-smelting furnace 236
Fig. 121 Lost-wax bronze castings from Igbo Ukwu 239
Fig. 122 Early metal in West and central Africa 240
Fig. 123 Location and plan of Jenne-Jeno 242
Fig. 124 Megalithic stone circle at Sine Saloum, Senegal 243
Fig. 125 Pottery vessel and stone axes from Batalimo 246
Fig. 126 Pits at Oveng, Gabon 247
Fig. 127 Urewe ware from sites in southwestern Kenya 250
Fig. 128 Sites of the Chifumbaze complex 252
Fig. 129 Chifumbaze-complex pottery from Malawi 255
Fig. 130 Schroda, viewed from an overlooking cave 257
Fig. 131 Terracotta head from Lydenburg 259
Fig. 132 The distribution of Bantu languages 263
Fig. 133 Rock painting at Silozwane Cave, Zimbabwe 267
Fig. 134 Schematic rock painting at Sakwe, Zambia 268
Fig. 135 Sites in southwestern Africa with early sheep remains 270
Fig. 136 Cape coastal pottery 271
Fig. 137 Kasteelberg 272
Fig. 138 Plan of stone-built houses at Tegdaoust 277
Fig. 139 West African sites and kingdoms 278
xii List of illustrations

Fig. 140 Trumpet and trumpet-blower from Begho 280

Fig. 141 Terracotta heads from Ife 281
Fig. 142 Linear earthworks in the region of Benin 282
Fig. 143 Benin ‘bronzes’ 283
Fig. 144 Second-millennium sites in eastern and southern Africa 286
Fig. 145 The rock-cut church of Abba Libanos, Lalibela 287
Fig. 146 Principal sites on the East African coast 289
Fig. 147 Ruins of a mosque at Gedi 291
Fig. 148 Salt crystallising at Kibiro 293
Fig. 149 Luangwa-tradition pottery 294
Fig. 150 A Kisalian grave at Sanga 296
Fig. 151 Gold artefacts from Mapungubwe 298
Fig. 152 Clay-walled house excavated at Great Zimbabwe 299
Fig. 153 Inside the great enclosure at Great Zimbabwe 300
Fig. 154 Reconstruction of the main building at Nhunguza 302
Fig. 155 Copper cross-ingot from Ingombe Ilede 303
Fig. 156 Elaborate stone walling at Naletale 303
Fig. 157 Terracing and enclosure at Nyanga 304
Fig. 158 Stone-walled structures at Makgwareng, Free State 306
Fig. 159 Rock painting of an ox-drawn wagon 308
Sources of illustrations

I am most grateful to all who have assisted with the provision of illustrations.
The line drawings in Figs. 13, 20, 21, 25, 27, 36, 37, 45, 50, 51, 61--6, 68, 72--4,
76, 80, 84, 85, 88, 97 and 105 are owed to Dr Laurel Phillipson, while Figs.
55, 99, 101, 102, 115, 127, 129, 136, 149 and 154 are the work of the late
John Ochieng’. I am responsible for the drawings in Figs. 3, 4--8, 10, 14, 18,
23, 32, 35, 39, 41--3, 60, 90--2, 100, 120, 123, 138 and 142.
Acknowledgements are due to the following for permission to reproduce
photographs: Fig. 12 -- John Reader; Fig. 15 -- Cambridge University Press
(M. D. Leakey 1971); Figs. 17, 19 -- Dr Francis Thackeray, Transvaal Museum;
Fig. 24 -- Zambia Survey Department; Fig. 26 -- National Museums of Kenya;
Fig. 29 -- Leverhulme Centre for Human Evolutionary Studies, University
of Cambridge; Fig. 33 -- Trustees of the Natural History Museum, London;
Fig. 38 -- Musée de l’Homme (Archives de l’Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, 32);
Fig. 44 -- Dr John Wymer and the University of Chicago; Fig. 47 -- Image cour-
tesy of Christopher Henshilwood; Fig. 48 -- Professor Lyn Wadley; Fig. 52 --
Heinrich-Barth-Institut; Fig. 54 -- A. R. Willcox; Figs. 58, 159 -- Dr Benjamin
Smith, Rock Art Research Institute, University of the Witwatersrand;
Fig. 70 -- Dr Rudolf Kuper (Stehli 1978); Fig. 71 -- Professor Barbara Barich
(1987); Figs. 81, 82 -- Dr Karl-Heinz Striedter (Stehli 1978); Fig. 83 -- Dr Augustin
Holl (1989); Fig. 86 -- Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Figs. 93, 112 -- Trustees
of the British Museum (ea986 and ea901 respectively); Figs. 98, 148 --
Professor Graham Connah (1976, 1996); Figs. 103, 118 -- Cambridge University
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (1931.755 and 1953.211, 303, 409
respectively); Fig. 104 -- Dr Len Pole; Fig. 107 -- Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd
(A. A. M. van der Heyelen and H. H. Scullard, eds., Atlas of the Classical World,
1959); Fig. 108 -- Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge; Fig. 111 --
Dr Julie Anderson; Fig. 114 -- National Museum, Warsaw; Fig. 121 -- Profes-
sor Thurstan Shaw; Fig. 124 -- Professor Merrick Posnansky; Fig. 131 -- South
African Museum; Fig. 137 -- Dr Peter Mitchell; Figs. 141, 143 (left) -- Professor
Frank Willett; Fig. 143 (right) -- Glasgow Museums and Art Galleries; Fig. 150 --
Dr Francis Van Noten (1982); Fig. 151 -- Professor Andrie Meyer, University of
Pretoria; Fig. 157 -- Dr Robert Soper (2002); Fig. 158 -- Dr Tim Maggs (1976).
All other photographs are my own.

D. W. P.

xiii
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