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Reference and Information Services

2
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3
REFERENCE AND INFORMATION SERVICES

An Introduction

Fifth Edition

Linda C. Smith and Melissa A. Wong, Editors

Library and Information Science Text Series

4
Copyright © 2016 by Linda C. Smith and Melissa A. Wong

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the
inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Smith, Linda C., editor. | Wong, Melissa Autumn, editor.

Title: Reference and information services: an introduction.
Description: Fifth edition / Linda C. Smith, Melissa A. Wong, editors. | Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited,
[2017] | Series: Library and information science text series | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016013108 (print) | LCCN 2016032711 (ebook) | ISBN 9781440836961 (paperback) | ISBN
9781440836978 (eBook)
Subjects: LCSH: Reference services (Libraries) | Information services. |
BISAC: LANGUAGE ARTS & DISCIPLINES / Library & Information Science / Cataloging & Classification. |
LANGUAGE ARTS & DISCIPLINES / Library & Information Science / Collection Development.
Classification: LCC Z711 .R443 2017 (print) | LCC Z711 (ebook) | DDC 025.5/2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016013108

ISBN: 978-1-4408-3696-1
EISBN: 978-1-4408-3697-8

21 20 19 18 17 1 2 3 4 5

This book is also available as an eBook.

Libraries Unlimited
An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC

ABC-CLIO, LLC
130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911

www.abc-clio.com

This book is printed on acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America

5
 Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART I: Concepts and Processes
1 —History and Functions of Reference Services
Dave A. Tyckoson
2 —Ethics
Emily J. M. Knox
3 —The Reference Interview
M. Kathleen Kern and Beth S. Woodard
4 —Instruction
Wendy Holliday
5 —Cooperation and Consortia
Rick Burke
6 —Models of Reference Services
Lili Luo
7 —Management of Reference Services
JoAnn Jacoby and M. Kathleen Kern
8 —Evaluation and Assessment of Reference Services
Laura Saunders
9 —Training and Continual Learning for Reference Staff
Beth S. Woodard
10 —Marketing and Promotion of Reference Services
Elisabeth Leonard and Rosalind Tedford
11 —Reference Services for Children and Young Adults
Marcia A. Brandt
12 —Reference Services for Diverse Populations
Nicole A. Cooke
PART II: Information Sources and Their Use
13 —Selection and Evaluation of Reference Sources
Carol A. Singer
14 —Licensing Electronic Sources
Rick Burke
15 —Search Strategies for Online Resources
Melissa A. Wong
16 —Bibliographic Sources
Linda C. Smith
17 —Indexes and Abstracts
Linda C. Smith
18 —Sources for Facts and Overviews
Melissa A. Wong
19 —Dictionaries
Stephanie R. Davis-Kahl
20 —Geographical Sources
Jenny Marie Johnson

6
21 —Biographical and Genealogical Sources
Jeanne Holba Puacz
22 —Government Information
Sarah Erekson and Mary Mallory
23 —Sources for Data and Statistics
Celina Nichols McDonald
24 —Readers' Advisory Services and Sources
Neal Wyatt
25 —Business Sources
Celia Ross
26 —Health and Medicine Sources
Maura Sostack
27 —Primary and Archival Sources
Shelley Sweeney
28 —Legal Sources
Paul D. Healey
PART III: The Future of Reference Service
29 —Creating the Future of Reference Service
Amy VanScoy
Index
About the Contributors
About the Editors

7
 Preface
The fifth edition of Reference and Information Services reflects the dramatic changes shaped by rapidly
developing technologies and increasing volumes of digital content over the past five years. This edition takes
the introduction to reference sources and services significantly beyond the content of the previous edition. In
Part I, “Concepts and Processes,” chapters have been revised and updated to reflect new ideas and methods in
the provision of reference service in an era when many users have access to the Web. New chapters in this part
provide coverage of consortia and cooperation, models of reference services, and marketing and promotion of
reference services. Two chapters provide more thorough coverage of services for specific populations, by
dealing separately with children and young adults and with a wider range of diverse populations. In Part II,
“Information Sources and Their Use,” discussion of each source type has been updated to encompass a much
more extensive list of Web resources, both freely available and licensed. New chapters in this part cover
licensing electronic sources, search strategies for electronic sources, sources for data and statistics, readers’
advisory services and sources, business sources, health and medicine sources, primary and archival sources,
and legal sources. A final chapter makes up Part III, exploring how professionals can create the future of
reference service.
A number of new authors are contributors to the fifth edition, bringing to their chapters their experience as
teachers of reference or as practitioners in various types of libraries. Throughout the text, boxes are used to
generate thought and discussion. Despite these updates and changes, the fifth edition has the same goal as its
predecessors, to provide students and practitioners with an overview of current reference sources, issues, and
services.

Linda C.
Smith Melissa A. Wong

8
 Acknowledgments
A number of individuals assisted the editors or authors in the creation of the fifth edition of Reference and
Information Services. We would like to express our gratitude for their valuable contributions here.
First, we would like to thank the editorial and production staff of Libraries Unlimited, an imprint of ABC-
CLIO, for their support in publishing this new edition.
The authors of several chapters in the fifth edition built on the work of authors who contributed to the
fourth edition. We would like to acknowledge our debt to David A. Cobb, Prudence W. Dalrymple, Eric Forte,
Jim Hahn, Frances Jacobson Harris, Lisa Janicke Hinchliffe, Josephine Z. Kibbee, Kathleen M. Kluegel, Lori S.
Mestre, Carol Bates Penka, Richard E. Rubin, Joseph E. Straw, Jo Bell Whitlatch, and Lynn Wiley for helping
shape earlier editions of this text.
Thanks go to Holly Soboroff for creating the Venn diagram figures in Chapter 15 and to Matthew Beth for
his assistance.
We are deeply indebted to Richard E. Bopp (1944–2011), who first proposed the idea of a collaboratively
authored reference textbook in the late 1980s and served as the lead editor for the first four editions published
in 1991, 1995, 2001, and 2011.
Melissa would like to thank her family, Bob, Erica, and Craig, for their patience and support while she
worked long hours on this project. You make it a wonderful world every day.

9
 Part I
Concepts and Processes

10
 Chapter 1
History and Functions of Reference Services
Dave A. Tyckoson

11
Introduction

We are living in the information age, where information is available everywhere all the time. With devices that
we carry in our purses and pockets, we are able to find, collect, and utilize the information that we need—no
matter when we need it or where we are located. The tools for connecting to a vast array of types and quality
of information are always at hand—meaning that the information we want is also always at hand. We can
collect statistics on climate change, quote Macbeth, watch the rise and fall of the stock market, read news
stories from around the corner and around the world, listen to our favorite music, find out when the bus will
reach our stop, figure out which store has the best price on the product we want to purchase, and watch cat
videos—all at the same time. Every person has the power to retrieve the information that he or she needs—so
why do we still need libraries? And why do we still need reference librarians?
There are obviously many answers to those questions—and this book will provide a variety of opinions,
options, and actions that will keep libraries and reference services growing and thriving. But ease of use does
not always equal ease of understanding. And too much information can cause some of the same problems as
too little information. To fully understand the roles, responsibilities, and continuing need for reference
librarians, we need to look back at the reasons that reference service was established, the things reference
librarians have done traditionally, and how those activities have evolved to the present day. And to start, we
need to understand the role of the library within the broader community that it serves.

12
 The Library and the Community

Libraries do not exist in isolation. Every library serves a specific, defined community. The library is not an
independent institution in and of itself, but exists to serve and support the community for which it was
established. Public libraries serve the residents of a certain geographical area, most often a city or county.
Academic libraries serve the faculty, staff, and students at the college or university. School libraries serve the
teachers and students attending a specific school. Medical libraries serve the doctors, nurses, staff, and patients
of the hospital. Law libraries serve the attorneys and staff of the firm. Corporate libraries serve the
management and employees of a specific company.
In each case, the function of the library is to provide information to its parent community. When members
of the community need information services, the primary objective of the library is to fill that need. Whether
that need relates to research, business, or entertainment, members of the community often turn to the library.
Most libraries, especially public and academic libraries, also allow people from outside the primary community
to use their collections, facilities, and services. However, the primary focus needs to be on the people who
make up the parent community. If a library fails to serve its primary clientele, it will not remain in business. A
library that is perceived as vital to its community will receive the support, staff, and funding to maintain its
role as an information utility for the community. A library that does not fill the needs of its parent community
will slowly wither, will become marginalized, and may even close. To serve the community effectively,
librarians must learn who composes that community, what their information needs are, and how those needs
are changing. Know the community, and one will know what the library should contain, which services to
offer, and what level of support to expect in return.

13
 What Libraries Do

Libraries perform three basic functions in order to fill the information needs of their communities. Each is
extremely detailed and highly complex, yet all of the activities of the library can be reduced to one of these
three functions. The functions of the library have evolved over time as libraries and their parent communities
have coevolved. In many libraries, a new function has taken root, and in some, this new function is flourishing.
To fully understand reference service, one first needs to understand the basic functions of the library.

Collections

Historically, the first function of libraries was to select, collect, and preserve information. From ancient
times, librarians have collected and retained documents of interest to their parent communities. From the
scrolls in the Great Library of Alexandria to the books chained to the desks of the Bodleian Library, to the
scientific journals of the National Library of Medicine, to the children’s books of the local public library, every
library has had and continues to have as its first role the accumulation of information of interest to its
community. This information takes many forms, which today include books, journals, microforms,
photographs, compact disks, videos, DVDs, websites, MP3s, computer files, and any other form of information
storage that has been used in the past. In response to the needs of the community, librarians will also collect
any new information formats that will be developed in the future. The popular image of the library as a
warehouse for materials—whether those materials are row after row of books on shelving, cabinets of
microfilm or audio CDs, or a Web page full of links—comes directly from this collection function. This is the
oldest historical function of libraries: to find, select, acquire, and preserve documents of interest to the
community. It remains a vital role to this day. Part II (Chapters 13–28) of this book discusses collections for
reference service.

Organization

The second function of libraries is to organize the information they collect. The fact that librarians organize
information is intuitively obvious, but it is a much more recent function than collecting. Historically, this was
the second function to arise in libraries, evolving as a corollary to the first function. As libraries grew in size, it
became more and more difficult for users (and librarians) to find the information in which they were
interested. When libraries were very small, the user could simply browse the entire collection to find what was
needed. As the size of libraries grew, other methods of organization were required.
From alphabetical order to RDA and from MARC to metadata, librarians have developed a wide variety of
methods for organizing and finding materials in their collections. Most of these tools were initially developed
by librarians primarily for self-assistance. As libraries grew larger, it became much more difficult for librarians
to know where to find specific documents or pieces of information within the overall collection. As a result,
librarians developed concepts such as subject headings, main entries, authority files, call numbers, metadata
tags, and controlled vocabularies. Although libraries must have always had some kind of organization, the first
true catalogs were developed as inventory control devices in the latter half of the 15th century (Hanson and
Daily 1970). The first published catalog was the book catalog of the Bodleian Library in Oxford, which was
published in 1620. Although no precise date can be given for when librarians began to organize information on
a large scale, they have been doing so for at least 500 years.
Over time, our organizational tools became more and more sophisticated, with author, title, and later even
subject entries included. By the early 19th century, librarians had developed a number of codes that described
how such information would be organized, resulting in the publication of the famous 91 rules of Panizzi in
1841 and Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalog in 1876. Today we use RDA, MARC records, HTML, XML,
EAD, OpenURL, and metadata coding to describe our collections. Tomorrow, new schema will be developed

14
that will be applied to as-yet-undeveloped forms of information or that will better organize materials in our
collections. However, the central function remains the same: to tell the users what information is included in
the library and to help them retrieve that information.
Librarians have become quite sophisticated in organizing and indexing the materials contained within their
collections. Using the technology of the times, from scrolls to books to cards to databases, librarians have been
and continue to be leaders in the theory and practice of indexing and cataloging information. Google may tell
library users what exists out on the Web, but librarian-developed tools and guides tell people where the useful
information is located. Although Google will always provide the searcher with lots of websites, it relies on
automatic linking and indexing, whereas library guides include only sources that have been evaluated by the
librarian. For more on the organization function of libraries, see Chapter 13.

Publishing

The third function of libraries is newer and is a direct extension of the organization role—that is, to serve as
a publisher and distributor of information produced by its community. Many communities are digitizing their
unique materials and making them available to the world—and it is often the library that takes the lead in these
projects. In an age when information is everywhere, it is hard to find information that has the highest value.
For many communities, that hard-to-find information is contained in the special collections area of the local
library. In many communities, it is only the library that has made the effort to retain and preserve these
materials. With new digitization technology, the library now has the ability to share those local resources with
the rest of the world—and many libraries are doing exactly that.

Service

However, it is the fourth function of libraries that is most relevant for this book— and that is to provide
direct assistance to users in their search for and retrieval of information, which is what librarians now call
reference service. This aspect of librarianship began in the mid- to late 1800s. Although everyone today has
grown up with reference service and tends to take this service for granted, it was truly a revolutionary concept
when first introduced. To understand how revolutionary the idea of reference service really was, a look back in
time at what society was like in that era is required.

15
 Historical Development of Reference Services

Universal Education and Public Libraries

The fact that reference service was developed at all is linked to two different, yet related 19th-century ideals:
universal education and public libraries. These two movements transformed the fabric of American society and
had a lasting impact that remains today. Universal education was the concept that all children in the United
States, no matter what class, race, or religion, would be able to receive free public education. Reasons for
establishing universal education for all school-age children varied widely and were often at cross-purposes to
each other (Gutek 1970, 51–52). Business leaders saw universal education as a way to attain better workers.
Labor leaders saw it as a way for people to move up in society. Religious leaders saw it as a way to enable
more people to read the Bible. Politicians saw it as a way to create a single national identity among a varied
immigrant population. Regardless of the true motivations for establishing universal education, state and local
governments throughout the nation established free public schools, which did in fact result in a more highly
educated society. As a direct result of universal education, the literacy rate in the United States rose
significantly.
Precise data on literacy prior to 1870 are difficult to obtain, and rates varied widely from region to region
(Soltow and Stevens 1981). Estimates of literacy rates in the 1850s range from 90 percent in Massachusetts to 60
percent in the Southern states. However, these figures count only white males. Female literacy rates tended to
be lower than that for males, ranging from 2–4 percent less in the Northeast to 10–15 percent less in the South.
Literacy among the free black population was estimated at 50 percent, and the literacy rate of slaves was 5–10
percent. The literacy rate for Native Americans would have been even lower. By 1870, the literacy rate had
risen to 88.5 percent in the white population and 20.5 percent in the nonwhite population (U.S. Bureau of the
Census 1975, 1: 382). As more and more people learned to read, they became more and more interested in doing
so.
At the same time as universal education was becoming the norm, the concept of the free public library was
being established. To convince the city fathers that such an institution would be a necessary and valuable
component of the community, the trustees of the Boston Public Library made these arguments: “The question
is not what will be brought about by a few individuals of indomitable will and an ardent thirst for
improvement, but what is most for the advantage of the mass of the community. In this point of view we
consider that a large public library is of the utmost importance as the means of completing our system of
public education” (Trustees [1852] 1975, 9). The fact that the public library was viewed as a component of
universal education is emphasized again later in that same report (emphases in the original document):
And yet there can be no doubt that such reading ought to be furnished to all, as a matter of public policy and duty, on the same principle that we
furnish free education, and in fact, as a part, and the most important part, of the education of all. For it has been rightly judged that,—under
political, social and religious institutions like ours,—it is of paramount importance that the means of general information should be so diffused
that the largest possible number of persons should be induced to read and understand questions going down to the very foundations of social
order, which are constantly presenting themselves, and which we, as a people, are constantly required to decide, and do decide, either ignorantly
or wisely. That this can be done,—that is, that such libraries can be collected, and that they will be used to a much wider extent than libraries
have ever been used before, and with much more important results, there can be no doubt; and if it can be done anywhere, it can be done here in
Boston; for no population of one hundred and fifty thousand souls, lying so compactly together as to be able, with tolerable convenience, to resort
to one library, was ever before so well fitted to become a reading, self-cultivating population, as the population of our own city is at this moment.
To accomplish this object, however,—which has never yet been attempted,—we must use means which have never before been used; otherwise
the library we propose to establish, will not be adjusted to its especial purposes. Above all, while the rightful claim of no class,—however highly
educated already,—should be overlooked, the first regard should be shown, as in the case of our Free Schools, to the wants of those, who can, in
no other way supply themselves with the interesting and healthy reading necessary for their farther education. (Trustees [1852] 1975, 15–16)

The Boston Public Library did, in fact, become a reality and opened its doors to the public—all of the public
—on March 20, 1854. It was an instant success. In less than six months of operation, more than 35,000 volumes
were borrowed (Stone 1977, 158). When given an opportunity to read, the public responded at an
overwhelming rate, borrowing an average of one book for every two people living in the city, and this at a
time when the concept of borrowing books was new to the majority of the population and not yet a common
practice. The concept of the free public library was rapidly adopted by other municipalities, with 188 such

16
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