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The Burden of Silence
The Burden of Silence
Sabbatai Sevi and the Evolution
of the Ottoman-Turkish Dönmes

cengiz sisman

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark
of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America

© Cengiz Sisman 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the
appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sisman, Cengiz.
The burden of silence: Sabbatai Sevi and the evolution of the Ottoman-Turkish dönmes /
Cengiz Sisman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–19–024405–7 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Sabbathaians—History. 2. Shabbethai Tzevi, 1626–1676. 3. Crypto-Jews—Turkey—History.
4. Jews—Turkey—History—Ottoman Empire, 1288–1918. 5. Messiah—Judaism—History.
I. Title. II. Title: Sabbatai Sevi and the evolution of the Ottoman-Turkish dönmes.
BM199.S3S57 2015
296.8’2—dc23
2014047147

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

To Özlem
CONTENTS

List of Tables and Illustrations x

Acknowledgments xiii
List of Abbreviations xvi
Notes on Transliteration xvii

Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1 Remapping a Messianic Movement in the Early
Modern World 13

The “Messiah” of an Ottoman City 16

The Early Modern Ottoman Crisis, Ottoman Jewry,

and the Sabbatean Movement 19

Ottoman Sultans, European Monarchs, and Sabbatai

Sevi 25

Grand Viziers, the Ottoman Puritans, and Sabbatai

Sevi 30

Natural Calamities, Environmental Crises

and the Sabbatean Movement 34

Sabbatai Sevi and Nathan of Gaza: The Beginnings

of a Messianic Movement 38

CHAPTER 2 The Rise and Fall of the Sabbatean Movement in the

Eurasian World 44

Sultan’s Gaze: Ottoman Perception of the Sabbatean

Movement 45

Izmir: The Messiah Appeared 47

 Istanbul: The Messiah Imprisoned 55

Dardanelles: The Messiah Exiled 57

London: Dissemination and Magnitude of the Movement

in the Eurasian World 61

Edirne: The Messiah Convicted 69

Spain and Portuguese: The Marrano Impact on the

Movement 72

Sultan’s Palace: “Become a Muslim or Prepare to Die!” 75

CHAPTER 3 From a Global Movement to an Ottoman Sect:

The Birth of a Crypto-Messianic Community 83

A New Muslim in the Ottoman World 84

Living and Schooling at the “Pharaoh’s Palace” 87

Self-Perception of the Messiah and the Mystery

of the Godhead 92

The Early Messianic Community 99

The Exiled Messiah 105

The Dead Messiah? 109

CHAPTER 4 Authority, Authenticity, and Leadership: Failed

Prophecy and the Emergence of Post-Messianic Sects
in the Ottoman Empire and Eastern Europe 116

The Birth of a Post-Messianic Community: Yakubis 120

Jewish Sabbateans among the Dönmes 123

A Growing Community: Individual Conversions versus

Mass Conversions 132

A New Authority: Karakaş 136

A New Authenticity: Kapancıs 141

CHAPTER 5 Politics of Crypto- and Hybrid Identities among
the Jews, Christians and Muslims 145

Naming Hybrid Jewish and Ottoman Communities 148

European Connections: The Karakaş and the Polish

Crypto-Jewish Frankists 150

Dönmes among the Jews, Christians, and Muslims 156

| Contents
viii  
 Christian Missionaries “Discover” the Dönmes 161

Ottoman Officials “Discover” the Dönmes 164

chapter 6 Dönme Kabbala: Beliefs and Practices in Parallel

Space and Time 170

The Eighteen Commandments as a Kabbalistic

Constitution 171

The Credo and Abolition of Ceremonial Law 177

Language and Liturgy 178

Religious Calendar and Festivals 181

Crypto-Self-Government and Its Institutions 192

chapter 7 The Experience of Modernity: The Emergence

of Orthodox, Reformist, and Liberal Dönmes 214

Modern Schools and the Rise of a New Generation 216

Salonica and Internationalization of the Dönmes 228

Alternative Brotherhoods: Dönmes as Sufis and

Freemasons 237

From Salonica to Empire: Dönmes as Revolutionary Young

Turks 243

Between Tradition and Modernity 251

Farewell to the Salonican “Golden Age” 254

chapter 8 From Empire to Nation-State: Resettlement in

Modern Turkey 262

The Dönme Alteneuland: Turkey 263

Dönmes as the Founding Elite of the Modern Turkey

and Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk] 266

New “Ideal” Citizens and Crypto-Identities 269

Repositioning in a nation-state: Mustafa Kemal’s “bomb

of Enlightenment” and the Karakaş Rüştü Affair 271

Silencing the Dönmes: Beginning of an End? 282

Conclusion: Passion for the Waiting 285

Bibliography 291
Index 309

Contents | ix
LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1.1 A portrait of Sabbatai Sevi, 1660s. Taken from an anonymous

book, published in 1667: Relation de la véritable imposture du faux
messie des juifs nommé Sabbatay Sevi: juif natif de Smyrne,
maintenant nommé Achis Mehemet Aga, Turc, portier du Serrail du
grand Seigneur/escrite de Constantinople le vingt-deuxiesme
novembre 1666 par un religieux digne de foy, fidelle tesmoin de ce
qu'il escrit,& envoyée à un de ses amis à Marseille (Avignon: Chez
Michel Chastel, 1667). 14
Figure 1.2 The Sabbatai Sevi house in ruins, Izmir, 2010. Photo courtesy
of the author. 18
Figure 1.3 An imaginary scene of Mehmet IV accepting envoys, 1670s.
Frontispiece of Paul Rycaut, History of the Present State of the
Ottoman Empire (London: Printed for J. Starkey, 1675). 27
Figure 2.1 A seventeenth-century Izmir panorama and kadi court. By Dutch
artist and traveler, Cornelis de Bruijn, 1683. 49
Figure 2.2 The Kilitbahir Fortress, Dardanelle, 2004. Photo courtesy of the
author. 59
Table 2.1 Hasköy Court Records 1600–1660 65
Table 2.2 Hasköy Court Records 1660–1670 66
Table 2.3 Hasköy Court Records 1665–1666 66
Table 2.4 Hasköy Court Records 1670–1700 67
Figure 3.1 Tombstone: Four pillars, symbolizing the four essential elements
in the Sabbatean cosmology. Bülbülderesi Cemetery, Istanbul.
Photo courtesy of the author. 97
Figure 4.1 Tombstone: Saturn and other planets and stars, representing
Sabbatai Sevi and his followers. Bülbülderesi Cemetery, Istanbul.
Photo courtesy of the author. 125
 Table 6.1 A Comparative Chart of Jewish and Dönme Festivals. 190
Figure 6.1 Yılan Mermeri Square, Salonica, 1912. Courtesy of Huseyin
Mevsim. 198
Figure 6.2 Tombstone: Date palm tree, Maçka Cemetery, Istanbul. Photo
courtesy of the author. 209
Figure 6.3 Tombstone: Citrus tree, Bülbülderesi Cemetery, Istanbul. Photo
courtesy of the author. 210
Figure 6.4 Tombstone: Nightingales, Bülbülderesi Cemetery, Istanbul.
Photo courtesy of the author. 211
Figure 6.5 Tombstone: Sakladım Derdimi, Bülbülderesi Cemetery, Istanbul.
Photo courtesy of the author. 212
Figure 7.1 Şemsi Efendi and one of his students, Nuriye Fuat [Akev Eden],
Istanbul, 1911. Courtesy of Şişli Terakki Vakfi. 219
Figure 7.2 Selanik Terakki Mektebi for Boys, 1900. Courtesy of Şişli Terakki
Vakfi. 221
Figure 7.3 Students and teachers of Selanik Terakki School, Salonica, 1916.
Courtesy of Şişli Terakki Vakfi. 226
Figure 7.4 Yeni Cami (New Mosque), Salonica. Copyright by Ephorate of
Antiquities of Thessaloniki City, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and
Sports. 231
Figure 7.5 Villa Kapandji, Salonica, 1900s. Courtesy of ELIA Archives,
Thessaloniki. 235
Figure 7.6 Tombstone: Kethüda Motoş Efendizade, Bülbülderesi Cemetery,
Istanbul. Courtesy of Sinan Çuluk. 260

List of Tables and Illustrations | xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

W hen I browse through a book in a library or bookstore, I usually turn to

the acknowledgments first. I enjoy reading about the adventures the
author had over the course of researching and writing the book. If it is a Ph.D.
thesis, I look at the acknowledgments even more closely, since in them I find
my own story filled with twists and turns, and humor, hopes and despairs.
This book is a considerably expanded and revised version of my dissertation,
which commenced nineteen years ago.
For this arduous yet enchanting odyssey, I received material help, moral
support, and financial aid from numerous people and institutions. First, I am
sincerely thankful to my advisor Cemal Kafadar whose help, encouragement,
and perceptive attention was absolutely indispensable. His high standards
were always coupled with a kind, approachable, wise, and humorous manner.
In all the years I have spent at Harvard, he was not only an advisor but also
an elder brother, abi, then a hezarfen, friend and colleague, ready to share
life’s joy and agonies at any particular moment. I am also grateful to Bernard
Septimus whose meticulous scholarship taught me the meaning of devotion
to the detailed study of Sephardic history, in particular, and Jewish history, in
general. Jay Harris’ thought-provoking questions always provided me with ex-
cellent feedback and kept me focused when I found myself wandering too far
afield. Although he was geographically far away, Aron Rodrigue of Stanford
University always had a positive attitude, insightful comments, and unfailing
confidence in this project.
During the times I spent in Israel, I had the good fortune to meet many
great scholars, none of whom hesitated to share their enthusiasm and knowl-
edge regarding my project. I would especially like to mention Joseph Dan,
who ignited my passion about Sabbateanism during his late evening classes
at Harvard and then at Hebrew University. In Israel, I had the tremendous
privilege of learning from some of the foremost scholars in the field, such as
Moshe Idel, Yahuda Liebes, Immenuel Etkes, Yom-Tov Assisi, Joseph Hacker,
Amnon Cohen, Yaron Ben-Neah, Eyal Ginio, Abraham Elqayam, and Boaz
Huss. During talks with Micheal Heyd over several coffee hafukh breaks in
the National Library, I conceived the idea that the Sabbatean phenomenon
was part of the Enthusiastic movements surfacing in many parts of the world
in the early modern period. With Pawel Maciejko and Marcin Wodzinski, I
learned to deeply appreciate the impact of Sabbateanism on Frankism and
Hassidism in Eastern Europe. Studying in the Gershom Scholem Library at
Hebrew University was truly an inspiring experience. There, I read and photo-
copied many articles and books, whose marginalia were full of Scholem’s own
copious notes, detailed comments, and endless question marks.
My experience in the Macedonian National Archive in Salonica in the early
2000s was enhanced by a long-term friendship with the archival staff, par-
ticularly Costa and Eleni, who not only helped me access documents but also
recommended the best fish restaurants in Karaburni and pastry shops on the
former Yalılar Caddesi.
I should also extend my thanks to the staff of the Süleymaniye Library, the
Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi (the Prime Minister’s Ottoman State Archives),
and the Center for Islamic Studies (ISAM) in Istanbul, where I spent most
of my summers. There, I not only found invaluable documents but also met
wonderful young and seasoned scholars from all around the world.
Since finishing my dissertation in 2004, I have discussed different parts
of my project with many people in different countries at different times.
During its long gestation, I became indebted to many teachers, colleagues,
and friends: Avigdor Levi, Ali Asani, Nur Yalman, Heath Lowry, Engin Akarli,
Cornell Fleischer, Emily Gottreich, Jonathan Sarna, Paul Bessemer, Giacomo
Saban, İlber Ortaylı, Faruk Birtek, Cem Behar, Nükhet Sirman, Gad Nasi,
Rıfat Bali, Oktay Özel, Cemil Aydın, Himmet Taşkömür, Hayrettin Yücesoy,
Hüseyin Yılmaz, Giancarlo Casale, Dimitri Kastritis, Avi Rubin, Derin
Terzioğlu, Hulya Canbakal, Turkay Nefes, the late Haluk Bitek, the late Seli
Kibar, the late Pamir Bezmen, Haluk Arığ, Ali Yalman, Mehmet Ö. Alkan,
Vahit Ipekçi, Mert Sandalci, Barry Kapandji, Cem Kapancı, Nejdet Bezmen,
Esin Edin, Jak Sigura, Ahmet Kuyaş, Irvin Cemil Shick, Lane Harris, and
Özlem Madi-Sisman. They, as well as numerous anonymous “believer” and
“assimilated” Dönmes from Turkey, Israel, Europe, and the United States, dis-
cussed the work with me or read different parts of it at various stages of this
project; they enhanced, revised, and sometimes even completely changed my
assumptions and arguments about this multi-layered and complex subject.
Since this work was in the making for so many years, I might have forgotten
some people who had given me feedback and suggestions, or to acknowledge
their works sufficiently for which I am sorry. Needless to say our memory fails
us with the passage of time.
I was fortunate to receive funding from several different institutions over
the years, which made it possible for me to pursue my academic goals. Of
them, I should specifically mention the Harvard Center for Middle East-
ern Studies, the Harvard Center for Jewish Studies, the Kokalis Program at

| Acknowledgments
xiv  
Harvard University, the Tauber Institute at Brandeis University, the Institute
for Advanced Studies at Hebrew University, the Islamic Research Center at
Istanbul (ISAM), FLAS, MELLON, ARIT-NEH Fellowships, the Institute of
Turkish Studies, the National Foundation for Jewish Culture, Furman Uni-
versity, the Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations at Koç University, and
TUBITAK.
Finally I would like to thank to my Oxford editor, Cynthia Read and her
superb team members, Gina Chung, Alyssa Bender and Narmatha Vaithiya-
nathan, who appreciated the value in my manuscript and turned it into a book
in the most possible efficient manner.
I would like to conclude this section with an anecdote. Several years ago
I gave a lecture on the Sabbatean movement at Connecticut College. At the
end of the talk, a professor of Jewish Studies approached me in puzzlement
and said that he had never thought of Sabbatai and his followers as “normal”
human beings. All he had heard previously was that Sabbatai was a counterfeit
messiah, a coward, and a manic-depressive, and that of course, his believers
were nothing but a gullible multitude. His reaction was one of my motiva-
tions to work harder in presenting the personalities, activities, and worldviews
of Sabbatai and his followers in a non-judgmental and non-teleological way.
This has not been an easy task. Writing in 1937, Gerschom Scholem opened
his seminal article, “Redemption through Sin,” with the following remark:
“No chapter in the history of the Jewish people during the last several hun-
dred years has been as shrouded in mystery as that of the Sabbatean move-
ment.” Sabbatai and his followers were transcendental characters, whose
deeds should be appraised beyond the strict boundaries of Judaism, Islam,
and modern psychology. Nevertheless, they are “human beings,” albeit rather,
like most of us, eccentric ones.

Acknowledgments | xv
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