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COMBINED
ROOF-
BOLTING
SYSTEMS
OF
MINE
V. Bondarenko
I. Kova levska

WOR-
H. Symanovych
M. Barabash
V. Chervati uk
0. Husiev
V. Snihur KINGS
Monograph

2Q2Q
0 ~~r~Fr~~i~i~up
Boca Raton London New York Leiden

CRC Press is an imprint ofthe

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
A BALKEMA BOOK
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Typeset by Roman Lysenko & Olha Malova, Department of Underground Mining,

Dnipro University of Technology, Dnipro, Ukraine
Printed and bound by LizunoffPress Ltd, Dnipro, Ukraine

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced,
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Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

P.O. Box 11320, 2301 EH Leiden, The Netherlands
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ISBN: 978-0-367-53330-4 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-08143-2 (eBook)
 COMBINED ROOF-BOLTING SYSTEMS OF MINE WORKINGS 3

INTRODUCTION
At the current level of stope works intensification in coal mines, the task of timeous
preparation of new production sites is extremely topical, one of the directions of which
is to reuse the preparatory mine workings. This technology is widely used in the
mines, but it is not always possible to obtain the desired results in terms of a combina-
tion of resource savings and ensuring the required operating conditions for the reuse
of mine workings. The successful implementation of this combination in technical solu-
tions for the maintenance of reusable mine workings, in our view, is one of the funda-
mentals for intensification of coal mining in the Western Donbas.
Two main perspective components of the technology for mine workings reuse have
been considered.
The first is to reduce the costs for maintaining mine working by involving in the
work not only of border rocks, but also of more distant rocks in order to withstand the
rock pressure forces. This direction has its own history already in terms of the wide
application of load-bearing roof-bolting based on the resin-grouted roof bolt. The bor-
der rocks of the roof and side rocks are subjected to strengthening for a limited dis-
tance into massif, mainly up to 2.4 m, due to the moderate length of the roof-bolts. In
recent years, the so-called “deep” strengthening of adjacent massif with rope bolts up
to 6.0 m in length (mainly) are actively implemented. These bolts already allow form-
ing a certain load-bearing structure not only from the rocks of immediate roof in the
coal stratum, but also involving the underlying seams of rocks in the main roof. The
load-bearing armored-rock structure (plate), formed in this way, takes up a part of the
rock pressure which makes possible to unload the side rocks and the rocks of mine
working bottom, frame support, as well as the elements of security system. Conse-
quently, when using a combination of resin-grouted roof bolts and rope bolts (com-
bined roof-bolting systems) to strengthen the roof rocks of mine workings, there is a
real possibility to reduce the material consumption of traditional fastening and security
systems, as well as the labor intensity of their setting.
The second component of the effective maintenance of reused preparatory mine
workings is caused by the choice of rational parameters for their fastening (first of all)
and then by subsequent protection (secondarily). The substantiation of the fastening
parameters of mine workings is inextricably linked with the peculiarities of rock pres-
sure manifestations, both in the primary operation of mine working as a belt entry, so
in its reuse as a ventilation drift.
Previously, from the experience of maintaining mine workings with the traditional
“frame-support-load-bearing roof-bolting” fastening system, it is necessary to note one
of the main features – the predominant loading on the prop stays of the frame support
with the relatively unloaded state of its cap board. In the opinion of experts, this be-
havior is due to the formation of high oblique and lateral loads on the frame while re-
ducing the vertical rock pressure on the central part of the mine working arch by appli-
cation of load-bearing roof-bolting. Against the background of negative phenomena
(for example, rock swelling of the mine working bottom), like plastic deformation of the
prop stays of the frames with bending into the mine working, to eliminate it with the
preservation of the required horizontal dimensions of the drift is an extremely difficult
and labor-consuming process. If ensuring the height of mine working has been tech-
4 COMBINED ROOF-BOLTING SYSTEMS OF MINE WORKINGS

nologically worked out and realized through the periodic bottom breaking and setting
the prop stays of strengthening support, then preserving its acceptable width (accord-
ing to operational standards and rules) is a difficult task. Its successful solution is
based, in our opinion, on the study of the displacement processes of coal-overlaying
formation (in the area of mine working location) by performing large-scale visual and
instrumental observations of the drifts condition, revealing the main patterns of the
rock pressure manifestations and the causes leading to their unsatisfactory opera-
tional state. Further, on the basis of generalization of experimental data, the concepts
are formed about the features of the displacement mechanism of an adjacent massif
of laminal rocks with a low hardness, and geomechanical models are developed to
describe this process for a long period of time for primary and repeated use of mine
workings.
At the final stage, the analysis of the results of multivariate computational experi-
ments creates a scientific and technical basis for the development of calculation
methods for the rational parameters of reusable mine workings fastening based on
established and mathematically described patterns of the connection between the
fastening means parameters and the geomechanical factors for maintaining mine
working.
The need for such a sequence of studies is conditioned not only by the tendency
for a more objective and adequate reflection of the geomechanical processes of load-
ing the fastening system elements in mine working, but also by unsuccessful attempts
(in some mining-geological conditions) to preserve the belt entry section for its reuse.
In this regard, it is necessary to investigate the effectiveness of the application of cer-
tain structural and technical solutions for strengthening the adjacent roof rocks with
combined roof-bolting systems.
In addition, despite the almost century-long history of the studying the phenome-
non of bottom rocks swelling and the accumulated production experience in dealing
with swelling, a common understanding of this process, as well as the effective ways
and means for limitation or complete elimination of the negative effects of bottom
rocks swelling, has not yet been formed. At the same time, it should be taken into ac-
count the considerable volumes of repair and restoration works with a low degree of
their mechanization, which requires timely planning of measures to resist swelling, the
manifestations of which are varied and ambiguous in the changing mining and geo-
logical situation of in-seam workings maintenance not only in a specific area of the
mine field, but even within the length of a single mine working. Therefore, in the cur-
rent, actively developing direction of continuous monitoring of coal mining technologi-
cal processes, the task of assessing the bottom condition in the in-seam workings on
a real-time basis and predicting the swelling for proved making technical decisions is
timeous and very important. Thus, the substantiation and development of the method
for predicting the bottom rocks swelling, which would reflect the features of the mining
and geological conditions, is an important scientific and technical task for in-seam
workings maintenance at different depths under conditions of intensive mining of thin
and very thin flat-lying coal seams.
Chapter I was written in collaboration with R. Lysenko and K. Prokopenko.
The authors express their sincere appreciation to O. Malova for preparing the
manuscript for publication and O. Stoliarska for examination the English text.
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 5
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

1. ANALYSIS OF ROCK PRESSURE MANIFESTATION

IN THE PREPARATORY MINE WORKINGS AT THE
STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION OF ENCLOSING
ROCKS BY THE ROOF-BOLT STRENGTHENING
1.1. EXPERIENCE OF COMBINED ROOF-BOLTING
SYSTEMS APPLICATION FOR STRENGTHENING
THE ROOF ROCKS OF MINE WORKINGS

Analysis of the world and domestic trends in the use of roof-bolts in the struc-
ture of fastening systems in mine workings has shown the expansion in the area
and in the volume of application of traditional resin-grouted roof bolts and rope
bolts combination for strengthening the roof rocks as an independent support, as
well as in a combination with other types of standing supports. Such technical
solutions are termed differently, for example, “two-level roof-bolting”, but the term
“combined roof-bolting systems” is more accurate, since, in fact, it is used a com-
bination of two types of roof-bolts that differ in their parameters and in tasks for
strengthening the roof rocks in mine working.
In this regard, a wide range of computational experiments has been conducted
on the calculation of the stress-strain state (SSS) of the massif around the pre-
paratory mine workings (supported behind the stope face) and their fastening
elements which integral components are combined roof-bolting systems in the
roof of the drift. The designs of these schemes differ from each other mainly in the
number of resin-grouted roof bolts in the roof and the parameters of their ar-
rangement in combination with the rope bolts.
The research with the application of rope bolts in the fastening system in the
mining and geological conditions of the “Stepova” Mine, DTEK “Pavlohradvuhillia”
deserves close attention, where the influence of the rate of stope face advance on
the intensity of rock pressure manifestations in the drifts is considered [1]. The
positive effect of the rope bolts application has been obtained to limit the dis-
placements of rocks in the coal-overlaying formation. The refusal from the prop
stays for the strengthening support in the front bearing pressure zone and behind
the longwall face is substantiated, due to the fact that the armored and rock plate
in the roof of the drift is quite capable to limit the rock pressure manifestations and
preserve the mine working section, sufficient for its reuse.
In the conditions of Kuzbas mines, a study [2] has been conducted to assess the
effectiveness of the “two-level roof-bolting”. An attempt was made here to calculate
the parameters of the roof-bolts setting depending on the structure and mechanical
properties of the roof rocks. However, the problem has been solved at the level of
schematic concepts about the formation of rock prisms of sliding and the hypothe-
ses about the arch of ultimate equilibrium, which can be considered as an initial
stage to the description of the geomechanical processes of displacement in the in-
homogeneous coal-overlaying formation, broken by natural and technogenic frac-
6 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

tures into rock blocks and layers. The mining and geological conditions of the
Kuzbas Basin are fundamentally different from those in Donbas. The reliability and
durability of the “two-level roof-bolting” is noted, with a significant reduction in the
material consumption and labor intensity of setting the fastening structures, which
leads to a sharp decrease in the cost of maintaining mine workings.
The combination of frame support with roof-bolting systems is used in most
European coal mines. However, in the work [3] it is asserted that there are no uni-
fied technical solutions for such fastening schemes, since the mining-geological and
mining-technical conditions of coal mining are very diverse. These conclusions are
based on instrumental observations of the mine workings state with various fasten-
ing schemes, including rope bolts.
A number of empirical methods used in Poland for designing the schemes for
the combination of frame support and roof-bolting systems is analyzed. The results
of mining studies indicate a sharp decrease in displacements of the rock contour of
mine workings and their quite satisfactory condition when using the rope bolts sys-
tems. As a result of a three-year measurement period, the high efficiency of using
the combined roof-bolting systems for maintaining mine workings in various mining
and geological conditions for mining the coal deposits has been confirmed.
The roof-bolt support is widely used in the coal mines of China [4]: annually,
about 8 000 km of mine workings are developed, of which 80% are fastened with
the roof-bolts. The choice of setting schemes for the roof-bolts is based on accu-
mulated experience and analogies in identical mining and geological conditions.
For more substantiated recommendations on the parameters setting schemes for
the combined roof-bolting systems, a complex of underground measurements and
computational simulation using the FLAC 3D has been carried out to study the
evolution of stresses in the process of drifting by the longwall face of the experi-
mental site in the preparatory mine working. It is indicated the general similarity of
the results in analytical and mining research, which has made it possible to offer
several variants for combined roof-bolting systems application. Thus, a positive
experience has been described of a computational experiment usage for the se-
lection of rational parameters of setting the resin-grouted roof bolts and rope bolts
in the preparatory mine workings in the zone of stope works influence. It is difficult
to use these recommendations for the mines of other coal deposits, but the prin-
ciple in itself of the combined roof-bolting systems operation is assessed as quite
effective.
At present, a computational experiment on the study of the SSS of a rock
massif around mine workings fastened by combined roof-bolting systems, is be-
coming more and more developed [5 – 8]. This scientific and practical direction
should be considered very promising in view of the wide possibilities of numerical
methods for describing the complex geomechanical processes.
As for taking into account the structural peculiarities of the surrounding massif
(stratification, fracturing), then the mining instrumental observations are used with
some hypothetical concepts [9 – 12] and the accumulated experience of fastening
the mine workings with resin-grouted roof bolts and rope bolts [11 – 14].
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 7
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

1.2. A MECHANISM FOR INCREASING THE STABILITY

OF MINE WORKINGS BY COMBINED ROOF-BOLTING SYSTEMS

The edge area of the coal seam in the preparatory mine workings is the most
complex multifactorial object of geomechanical processes. Therefore, it seems
expedient to assess the degree of influence of the roof-bolt strengthening on the
mechanism of structural transformation of the roof rocks in the preparatory mine
working.
The classical theory of bending the girders and plate [15, 16] asserts that the
maximum horizontal stresses of tension (compression) σ z arise in the surface
areas of the girder (plate), and their value is inversely proportional to the square
of the girder thickness (thickness of the rock layer). For example, if two rock
layers of the same thickness are connected by roof-bolts, then the resistance to
bending of the combined layers increases fourfold, while their total resistance
increases only twice in the case of separate bending. Such a mechanism for
increasing the stability of the bolted roof was studied in the works [17, 18].
Based on the data presented in Fig. 1.1 the mechanism has been illustrated of
increasing the resistance to bending of two rock layers of the immediate roof,
strengthened with the roof-bolts.
In case of separate deformation of rock layers, the tensile stresses have an
increased value (see Fig. 1.1, a), and with a significant bending of the layer, they
exceed the resistance of the rock to tensile stress – the development of the
tension cracks begins on thickness of the layer. At the joint deformation of rock
layers connected by roof-bolts, the moment of resistance of their section
increases, causing a decrease in the stresses σ z maxima, including tensile
stresses. The process of formation and development of tension crack is being
slows down and not every alternating bend of immediate roof strengthened with
roof-bolts leads to the partitioning of doubled rock layers into blocks. In addition,
with the increased thickness of the load-bearing girder (plate), its rigidity
increases, which limits the amount of deflection of the layers and reduces the
probability of destruction of this rock volume and the decomposition of the thrust
system into separately descending blocks (see Fig. 1.1, b). The resistance to
bending of strengthened rock layers is provided by the so-called restoring
moment from the action of a pair of forces F as a result of stresses σ z in the
holistic area of the cross section. Undoubtedly, the process of partitioning into
blocks also occurs in the immediate roof strengthened with roof-bolts, but with an
increased length and thickness of the blocks.
Consequently, the number of interacting elements in the thrust system of the
roof rocks decreases, and this increases the stability of the roof rocks – the reac-
tion of their resistance to the rock pressure increases and the value of lowering
into the mine working cavity decreases [19].
We note the general patterns of the anomalous zones formation of the state of
coal-overlaying strata near the longwall face, which have been mined over many
8 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

decades of studying this phenomenon and have created the basis for geome-
chanical research, regardless of the mining-geological and mining-technical condi-
tions of coal seam mining.

a
Y
X
2

Z
σZ > (σуield)2
1
σZ < (σуield)1
σZ > (σуield)1

area of fractured rocks from σZ < (σсompr)2

compressive stresses
F

2 σZ < (σуield)2
σZ > (σсompr)1
σZ > (σсompr)2

1
F

σZ < (σуield)1
quasi-plastic joints

Fig. 1.1. The curves of horizontal stresses σz distribution on thickness of the roof rock
layers (а) and the scheme of stability assessment (b) at separate ( )
and joint ( ) their deformation

Ahead of the longwall face, a bearing pressure zone is formed, the length of
which along mine working in the Western Donbas mines is assessed in the range of
up to 20 – 40 m [20]. As the longwall approaches, the concentration of vertical
stresses σ у in the rocks massif increases, reaching a maximum at a distance of
2 – 15 m from the face. The value of the variable depends on the ratio of the rigidi-
ties of the coal seam and the roof rock layers.
The change in the initial state of the massif at the approach of the longwall
face induces the weakening of soft coal-bearing rocks, especially of the immedi-
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 9
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

ate roof and bottom, and, as a consequence, a sharp increase in their deforma-
tion. At a short distance from the face, the vast majority of the vertical displace-
ments U у is realized by lowering the easily deformable roof layers. The reduced
coal seam deformations contribute the approximation of the rock pressure maxi-
mum to the stope face. The traditional for the Donbas rocks, the so-called “non-
rigid pinching” the rock cantilevers above the longwall face in the Western Don-
bas acquires properties approaching the concept of “rigid pinching” (used in struc-
tural mechanics) with a concentration of the bending moment in the rock cantile-
ver in the area of the face. This induces an intensive gradient of displacements
growth of the rock contour of mine working in a limited area ahead of the longwall
face with length of up to 20 – 40 m [21 – 32]. Here, the rate of the roof and bottom
rocks convergence, as well as the sides of mine working, sharply increases from
a fraction of mm/day to one and even a few tens of mm/day, according to various
studies.
The traditional technology of maintaining the preparatory mine workings in the
bearing pressure zone ahead of the longwall face is connected with setting the cen-
tral prop stays of the strengthening support, mainly in the form of wooden (rigid)
prop stays. The central prop stays of the strengthening support resist to the vertical
rock pressure (in combination with the frame and the bearing roof-bolt fastening),
but do not increase the resistance of the frame to lateral loads.
A number of anomalous areas are formed around the preparatory mine work-
ing, associated with the redistribution of rock pressure and the processes of rock
weakening. This has been established by numerous studies, including the
modeling of the state of the border rocks and support in the zone of the stope
works influence when using the bearing roof-bolt fastening. The peculiarities of the
enclosing rocks state are as follows.
On the one hand, in the border rocks of the roof an area of stratification is
formed from the action of vertical tensile stresses σ у , as well as horizontal
stresses σ z and σ x , which activate the process of weakening. It is known that
the weak rocks, for example, of the Western Donbas have very low resistance to
tensile stress (usually up to 1.5 – 3.5 MPa), moreover, due to the action of factors
weakening the rock, such resistance is virtually absent. Nevertheless, because of
the dense reinforcement grid of the roof with roof-bolts, the area of stratification in
the form of an arch is not so significant, and the weight of rocks inside the arch is
many times less than the resistance of the frame support to vertical loads. In addi-
tion, if the length of the roof-bolts usually exceeds the arch dimensions, then they
themselves (due to the crown runners and the metal grid of the interframe fence)
are quite capable of retaining the volume of the loose rocks.
Another feature of the coal-bearing thin-bedded strata of the soft rocks is the
very weak adhesion over the contact surfaces of the constituent rock layers; in
many areas such an adhesion is practically absent. It should be also taken into
account the action of geostatic anomalies of rock pressure near mine workings,
10 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

which disturb the already weak contacts. The rock layers near mine working are
partially deformed independently of each other [33 – 42].
It has been determined by means of analytical, numerical and experimental re-
search methods that in the sides of the mine working, the increased rock pressure
weakens a certain volume of soft rocks, which increases their mobility. The
descending overlying rock layers load slightly the underlying volumes of rocks,
including the weakened ones in the immediate roof. The coal seam restricts the
vertical displacements of the lateral rocks and their displacement vector changes
the direction into the cavity of mine working, loading the frame prop stays. This
process in the bearing pressure zone is developed more intensively due to the in-
creased vertical component of the rock pressure. The intensification of the “stamp”
effect also occurs in the rocks of immediate bottom. From the side of the longwall
face, similar processes of pressing-out the rocks from the sides and the bottom of
mine working are developed, but they are intensified by the deformation of the rock
blocks. Therefore, there is an asymmetry of the load along the entire perimeter of
mine working, which should be taken into account when constructing geomechani-
cal models and calculating the parameters of the combined fastening system.
A schematic representation of the displacement mechanism of the coal-
overlaying strata in the cross section of the preparatory mine working is supple-
mented with the consideration in its longitudinal direction. There is a generally
accepted pattern of smooth bending of rock layers of the roof ahead of the stope
face and their layer-by-layer collapse into the mined-out space with the formation
of rock cantilevers of variable length [25 – 34, 43 – 49]. For Western Donbas,
there is a characteristic disturbance of contacts between layers of coal-bearing
strata and a very low resistance to tensile forces with developed fracturing
(usually two or three basic systems of fractures) condition some specificity of the
process of deforming the coal-overlaying formation ahead of the stope face. The
increase in the bearing pressure as the longwall face approaches, intensifies the
relatively independent deformation of the inhomogeneous layers of the coal-
overlaying formation, at bending of which horizontal tensile stresses σ х occur
(in the upper area of each layer thickness) even on the approach to the maximum
of the bearing pressure. In weak fractured rocks, the extremely small tensile σ х
are enough for the nucleation and growth of fractures of technogenic origin. In the
section of the layer where the fracture was formed, the resistance moment de-
creases sharply and further development of fractures is most likely here (as the
longwall face approaches). These fractures eventually join with the area of broken
rocks (due to the concentration of compressive σ х ) in the lower parts of each
layer and their partitioning into rock blocks occur.
From the viewpoint of the preparatory mine working stability, the formation of
fractures in the adjacent rock layers ahead of the longwall face increases their
deformation and reduces the resistance to the bearing pressure, which inevitably
leads to an intensification of the process of pressing-out the rocks in sides and
bottom of mine working. Therefore, to improve the reliability of prediction of rock
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 11
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

pressure manifestations in the geomechanical models being developed, it should

be taken into account the discrete disturbance of rock layers, which is intensified
as the stope face approaches. Here, one of the main questions is how to take into
account this discrete disturbance, for which the fact has been considered of
deformation of a partially disturbed rock plate with curves of horizontal stresses
σ х and σ z distribution, and due to the action of which a reaction of resistance to
rock pressure occurs (see Fig. 1.1). In this view, between the partially disturbed
rock plates in the bearing pressure zone, a similarity of the thrust system occurs,
which, on the one hand, has increased deformation, and, on the other hand, a
certain load-bearing capacity due to the action of only compressive stresses σ х
and σ z on the thickness of the layer. In the absence of tensile stresses σ х and
σ z in the section of the rock plate, its load-bearing capacity is realized due to the
restoring moment from the shoulder of the equivalent forces on opposite trans-
verse planes YX and YZ of the plate as integral values of the compressive σ х
and σ z , over the areas of their distribution on the end planes. Such a mechanism
of deformation and interaction of adjacent rock layers with discrete spatial distur-
bances is more reliable than the traditional concepts about the continuity of the
massif (in the zone of bearing pressure ahead of the longwall face) and the occur-
rence of some areas with disturbed rocks.
Thus, the conclusions and recommendations have been formulated on the
principles of creating a geomechanical model for the displacement of the massif
and loading of the support in the preparatory mine working in the zone of the
stope works influence.
First, the partial weakening of the rock layers of the coal-overlaying formation
in the form of discrete disturbances in the areas of tensile stresses (mainly hori-
zontal σ х and σ z ) and high concentrations of compressive stresses. This leads
to an increase in the volumes of rocks exposed to active deformations, and their
separation into a system of interacting plates intensifies the process of pressing-
out the partially weakened border massif in the sides and bottom of mine working.
Secondly, the creation and improvement (toward the way of increasing the re-
liability and objectivity) of the geomechanical model should go through a series of
successive stages, reflecting the real process of the origin and development of
discrete disturbances in the thin-bedded coal-overlaying formation of weak rocks.

1.3. THE INTERACTION OF SUPPORT IN MINE WORKINGS

WITH BORDER ROCKS UNDER THE CONDITIONS
OF AREAS FORMATION OF THEIR LIMITING STATE

The development of views and the formation of hypotheses about the interac-
tion of the support of mine workings with the enclosing rock massif has more than
a century of history. By now, there are definite ideas about the parameters of the
12 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

loading process of various types of supports with account of their operating mode
[50]. The term “operating mode of mine working” means [51] the ratio of the re-
pulse reaction q of support with its displacement u under the action of the load
(in principle, the pliability of support). This link is called the deformation-strength
characteristic of the support and is represented as a function q(u ) . This function
was previously considered in [50] in a two-parameter formulation (parameters q
and u ), and later, in the course of the concepts development about the interac-
tion of rock massif and support, more general ones were proposed: three-
parameter formulation (the third parameter is the perimeter of the cross section of
mine working) [51], and the four-parameter scheme [52], where the longitudinal
coordinate of mine working is also used. The conditions were investigated of
maintaining mine working outside the zone of stope works influence, in which the
intensity of the rock pressure manifestations is significantly lower than in the
immediate vicinity of the longwall face. In addition, the areas of disturbed rocks
around a single mine working are quite local in comparison with the zones of
active displacements of the coal-bearing massif in the course of performing the
stope works. Nevertheless, in our opinion, the nature of the occurrence and
course of geomechanical processes has a common basis, regardless of the con-
ditions for maintaining mine workings, for example:
– formation of unloading zones and increased rock pressure in the vicinity of
mine working;
– formation of areas of weakened and broken rocks, their interaction with the
support and holistic massif;
– development of stratification in the planes of weakening, in the thickness of
the lithological variety, and in the planes of laminations of adjacent lithotypes;
– partitioning of the rock layer into blocks by fractures perpendicular to the
planes of weakening and lamination, as well as the interaction of these blocks
during mutual displacement relative to each other;
– an increase in the volume of loosening rocks in constrained conditions of
deformation (generates increased rock pressure with the need for its redistribution);
– zonality of changes in the mechanical properties of the rock massif and its
structural transformations in the vicinity of mine working.
This is by no means all general positions in terms of the mechanism of formation
of the rock pressure on support, but they are enough to use the patterns obtained for
single mine workings in the process of studying the tendencies of connection
between the operating modes of support and the stability of preparatory mine
workings maintained in the zone of stope works influence.
This approach is conditioned by two reasons: firstly, the patterns of the rock
pressure manifestations and the process of interaction between the rock massif
and the support for single mine workings have been studied more thoroughly;
secondly, the processes of interaction of the massif with the support for single
workings are exposed to the influence of fewer factors, and the pathway of
knowledge from a simple phenomenon to a more complex one seems to be the
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 13
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

most promising in accordance with the classical canons of philosophical thought.

In the light of the foregoing, a scheme is considered (for simplicity, a two-
parameter one), of the interaction between the support of the mine working and
the surrounding rock massif under the conditions of areas formation of its limiting
state. The emphasis on these areas is made because of the increased interest
precisely to the conditions of intensive
rock pressure manifestation. p, q
There are two known tendencies [50 –
52] in the formation of the load on the
support, which are illustrated in Fig. 1.2 by
two dependences:
• the process of the rock massif de-
formation into the cavity of mine working
(Fig. 1.2, curve 1), which has a tendency 1
to reduce the load P (and, accordingly,
the support reaction q ) with increasing its
pliability u . In a situation with a certain 2
value of pliability umax , the load on the
q ′А′ А′′
supports disappears; the pattern 1 reflects А′ 3
q′А А
the process of SSS redistribution around pA, qA
mine working, when an excess volume of
rocks, which in the superlimiting state
moves in the direction of least resistance,
and, if it is not “interfered” with the help of
support reaction, then there is possible an u ′A′ u′A
occurrence of a “virtual” equilibrium state uA umax u
of P = 0 at u = umax ; Fig. 1.2. Scheme of interaction between
• the process of stability loss by a the support of a single mine working
part of the rock volume in the limiting or and the rock massif
superlimiting state (see Fig. 1.2, curve 2).
To restore their stability, a support reaction is necessary, which tends to grow with
an increase in pliability, since in conditions of quasi-free deformation of the rock
massif, unstable volumes of rocks are distributed along its depth.
Two mutually opposite tendencies predetermine the existence of a minimum
load on the support РА (in Fig. 1.2 it is shown as a point А at the intersection of
curves 1 and 2), for the determination of which it is necessary that the deforma-
tion-strength characteristic of the support q(u ) , which is represented by curve 3 in
Fig. 1.2, was passing through the point А . According to the canons of mathe-
matical analysis, the point А with pliability parameters u А of the support at its
reaction q A , reflects the only optimal solution to the problem of minimizing the
load on the support. It is impossible to achieve such an optimal solution in prac-
tice for different structural and technological reasons, which give some variation in
14 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

the values q(u ) . Therefore, it is more correct to speak about a certain range of
fluctuations of the deformation-strength characteristic of the support, shown in
Fig. 1.2 with the shaded area of the spread of the function q(u ) values.
Within the interval of the function fluctuation, the points А¢ and А¢¢ are singled
out, which are approximated to the point А of optimal value; they outline the ar-
eas of the rational values variations of the support reaction q A¢ - q A¢¢ at its pliability
u A¢¢ - u A¢ (see Fig. 1.2). The point А¢ is determined by the intersection of the verti-
cal at an increased pliability u A¢ (the vertical passes through the point of intersec-
tion of the lower boundary q(u ) with curve 1) of curve 2, since an increased pliabil-
ity of the support (in comparison with the optimal one) leads to an increase in load
in accordance with the second tendency to its reduce according to the first one, in
this case, not dominant. With limited pliability u A¢¢ (point А¢¢ ), the degree of influ-
ence of both tendencies is changed diametrically opposite: the increased load q A¢¢ is
shown by curve 1.
Thus, the above scheme of the interaction of the support with the surrounding
rock massif makes it possible to select rational intervals for variation of the sup-
port reaction q ′A − q ′A′ and its pliability u ′A′ − u ′A with the known dependences
(curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 1.2) of the behavior of the weakening adjacent massif and
the formation of the unstable rocks area. It should also be clarified that at the time
of the geomechanical processes development (in terms of parameters q and u ),
proceeding from the mine working stability, it is expedient that the deformation-
strength characteristic of support (curve 3) was located above the curve 2; then,
at any time, the support is capable of bearing the stable rocks.
The presented data are reflected (to a certain extent) in the normative and
technical documentation [53], where the methods for calculating the load on the
support are given, depending on its pliability; i.e., the influence of the deformation-
strength characteristic of the support on the loading process in specific mining
and geological conditions is taken into account. Of particular interest is the
assessment of the influence degree of the structural pliability of the support on the
change in the so-called normative load, according to which its required parame-
ters are subsequently calculated.
When considering this interaction, the four values of the ratio of structural pli-
ability of conditionally rigid ur and conditionally pliable u p supports are taken as
an example: ur / u p = 0.1; 0.25; 0.5 and 0.75. For these values, the graphs have
been constructed of the ratio Рr / Р p of the normative load on more rigid Pr and
more pliable Р p supports depending on the geomechanical conditions for main-
taining the mine working, which in the normative documents are characterized by
depth H of the mine working location and by the average calculated compressive
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 15
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

resistance R of adjacent rock massif. The results of the calculations are shown in
Figs. 1.3 and 1.4. They are interpreted as follows: the patterns of ratios Рr / Р p
and ur / u p relation are sufficiently stable regardless of the Н / R parameter, and
characterize the general tendency of Pr /Рp
reducing the load on support with an
increase in its pliability. Thus, with a
high rigidity of the support
( ur / u p = 0.1) a load Pr is formed on
6
it, exceeding the load Р p on a pliable
1
support by 7.1 – 7.3 times (like a frame
support from the special SCP profile); 4
in the process of increasing the pliabil-
ity (till ur / u p = 0.75) the ratio of these
2
loads decreases to 2 – 2.95. The lower 2
values of the given intervals corre- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 ur /up
spond to more favorable conditions for Fig. 1.3. The dependence of the load ratio
maintaining mine working ( Н / R = 21 Pr/Pp onto a rigid and pliable supports
m/MPa), and the upper ones to the on the ratio ur/up of their pliability:
intense rock pressure manifestation 1 – Н / R = 21 m/MPa; 2 – H / R = 54 m/MPa
( Н / R = 54 m/MPa). However, the Pr /Pp
relative deviation of the Рr / Р p pa-
1
rameter is 3 – 32% for such a wide
range of changes in mining and geo- 2
logical conditions for maintaining mine 6
working. Moreover, there is a tendency
to a decrease in deviations with an 3
increase in the difference in pliability of
the compared supports. The constancy 4
of patterns, probably, indicates their 4
sufficient objectivity in predicting the
development of the load on the sup- 2
port, with account of pliability. 20 30 40 50 H / R, m/МPа
Thus, in accordance with the Fig. 1.4. The Influence of the geomechanical
performed analysis of the formation of parameter H/R on the load ratio Pr/Pp onto
the load on the support of mine a rigid and pliable supports: 1 – ur/up = 0.1;
working, outside the zone of stope 2 – ur/up = 0.25; 3 – ur/up = 0.5;
works influence, it is possible to state 4 – ur/up = 0.75
that there is a significant effect of the
operating mode of support on this process. The current ideas about the interac-
tion of the support with the rock massif (in the conditions of the unstable equilib-
rium areas formation) reveal sufficiently the mechanism of the phenomenon and
16 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

generalize both the production experience and the results of analytical studies.
The opinion about the existence of a certain rational mode of support opera-
tion will be very useful when studying the geomechanical processes around the
preparatory mine working, located in the zone of stope works influence. There-
fore, further studies should be done with account of the assessment of the link
between the deformation-strength characteristic of the fastening system of mine
working and the degree of its stability during drifting the stope face in the area
from the bearing pressure zone till the zone of stabilization of the displacement
processes in the coal-overlaying formation behind the longwall face.
Thus, based on the analysis and study of the theoretical basis for the forma-
tion of the main provisions for the occurrence and course of geomechanical proc-
esses around mine workings, the patterns have been obtained of changing the
load on rigid and pliable supports on the basis of solving the problem of support
interaction with border rock massif in the conditions of formation of areas of its
limiting state. The influence dependence has been studied of the ratio of the
depth for maintaining mine working and the average calculated compressive re-
sistance of an adjacent massif, which makes it possible to predict the develop-
ment of the load on the support with account of its pliability.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis of modern works in the field of maintaining the preparatory mine
workings in the zone of stope works influence by combined roof-bolting systems
testifies that there is a perspective of their wide-scale application:
– firstly, it is very important to take into account the peculiarities of mining-
geological and mining-technical conditions for maintaining mine workings as a
determining factor in the choice of parameters for roof-bolt fastening, as indicated
by most researchers;
– secondly, the most promising method for studying the data of complex ge-
omechanical systems is a computational experiment in combination with the min-
ing instrumental observations;
– thirdly, when performing the computational experiments, the structure of an
adjacent massif, its natural and technogenic disturbances should to be taken into
account obligatory, which will make it possible to increase the adequacy of re-
search and the accuracy of the recommendations being developed for parame-
ters calculation of the combined roof-bolting systems.
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 17
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

2. RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS OF THE

EXPERIENCE OF THE PREPARATORY MINE
WORKINGS REUSE AT YUBILEINA MINE
2.1. MINING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The 590 belt entries and the 592 upper entries of the C6 seam mine field have
been selected as an object of mining research performing and being the variants
for various basic schemes for the roof-bolts setting in the roof. The research was
carried out in the area of the eastern wing of the inclined part of the C6 seam
mine field, where three panels of 590, 592 and 594 longwall faces were mined.
Mining and geological conditions are approximately the same both in depth of
development and in structure, as
well as the properties of the coal-
bearing strata.
At the baseline of research, the
590 belt entry has been driven with
a internal section of Sint = 15.0 m2,
with setting the TSYS-15.0 support,
with a step of 0.8 m. The resin-
3340

910

≥700
grouted roof bolts according to the ≥700
1800

scheme in Fig. 2.1 were set in the 800

interframe space with a step of 4930

0.8 m. When mining the 590 long-
wall face, the mine working was Fig. 2.1. Scheme for maintaining the 590 belt
entry of the С6 seam
used as a belt entry, and in the
course of stope works in the adjacent 592 longwall face, the mine working was re-
used as an upper entry. The mine working state was assessed according to indica-
tors of the rock pressure manifestations in the form of movements of the drift con-
tours in key areas of the cross section: general convergence towards the roof – the
bottom and sides of mine working, the change in the height of the drift in the zone of
people’s passage, the diagonal from the angle in the bottom of mine working to the
upper end of the frame prop stay in the opposite flank of the drift, the height from
the lower edge of the coal seam to the bottom of mine working, the degree of the
yielding joists actuation; in addition, a visual assessment was made in the geometry
change of the frame cap board (its flattening or bending in the area of setting the
central prop stay of the strengthening support) and its prop stays in the form of con-
verging their bearings, the SCP profile twisting or rectilinear bending of prop stay
part into the cavity of mine working.
To specify the measurements of the current dimensions of the drift, the corre-
sponding scheme is shown in Fig. 2.2. In time and space, the fixation of the mine
working dimensions was made on a case by case basis. In the area outside the
18 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

zone of the stope works influence (not less than 60 – 80 m to the stope face), the
measurements were made once every 3 – 4 days; in the area of the front bearing
pressure action ahead of the longwall face, in the area of its “window” and behind
the longwall face, at a distance of at least 60 to 80 m, the readings were fixed once
a day; then, in the area of stabilization of the rock pressure manifestations, the
measurements were made once for every 3 to 4 days. Such a technique made it
possible with the use of metering station to reflect more accurately the different in-
tensity of movements development of the mine working contour during the stope
face passage of the drift section.
For the completeness of the
representation about the curve of
the rock contour movements in
mine working and the deformation
features of the frame support, it is
placed a sufficient number of
measurement points (see Fig. 2.2).
Thus, the height h1 of mine
working from the arch keystone to
the bottom and its width в1 (at
nearby of the bottom) gives the
Fig. 2.2. The scheme of measuring the current general data on the section loss
dimensions of the preparatory mine workings
as the stope face advances when compared with the design
dimensions of the drifts. The pa-
rameters b2 and b3 are not less important to assess the section loss of the drift,
but also for accounting the convergence of its sides in the zone of people’s pas-
sage. In addition, a comparison of the values of the parameters b1,2,3 change
makes it possible to identify the areas of the greatest deformations of the frame
prop stays that correspond to the areas of increased rock pressure in the mine
working sides. The measurement of the drift height h2,3 in the working and non-
mining flanks gives an opportunity to assess two positions at once: the conver-
gence of the roof and bottom in the zone of people’s passage, refining the re-
maining height of mine workings in this place; the degree of asymmetry of the
frame deformation in different sides of the drift. The two more parameters с1,2 are
tending to refine the level of frame unevenness, and they measure the diagonal
from the drift angle to the upper end of the frame prop stays in the opposite flank
of mine working. If initially the same values с1 and с2 vary in different ways, this
indicates the non-uniform loading of the frame. In addition to the specified pa-
rameters for assessing the load asymmetry, the overlap value а1,2 of a cap board
and a prop stay was fixed in the yielding joists of the frame; at a а1 ≠ а2 , there is a
concentration of the load from the side of a larger overlap value. In addition, by
the values а1,2 , the performance of the frame support in the yielding mode is as-
 Chapter І. RESEARCH INTO STABILITY OF REUSABLE IN-SEAM 19
WORKINGS WHEN MINING THIN COAL SEAMS

sessed: how far the joist was actuated, and whether its constructive pliability was
exhausted. At the same time, the quality of the connection is visually assessed
between the cap board and the frame, as well as possible disturbances of the
yielding joist itself. The two dimensions h4,5 have still remained, which determine
the distance from the lower edge of the seam to the bottom of mine working.
These dimensions indirectly mark the value of swelling the drift bottom rocks with
a certain error, which is conditioned by deformation of the edge part of the seam
under the influence of the bearing pressure.
In general, in our opinion, the described measurements make it possible to
fully reflect the real rock pressure manifestations in the drifts that ensures the
objectivity of a comparative analysis of various schemes for setting the roof bolts
in the roof of mine workings. The measurement results are presented in the form
of graphs of a particular dimension changes depending on the distance z to the
stope face. Thus, the dynamics of the increase in movement of mine working con-
tour is observed, covering all the most characteristic areas of its maintenance.

2.2. ANALYSIS OF MINING RESEARCH RESULTS

The consideration of visual and instrumental observations results of the drifts

state was carried out sequentially, in the process of mining the panels within the
above area of the С6 seam mine field at the “Yuvileina” mine. However, to reduce
the volume of the book, the results are presented of the analysis of the 590 belt
entry state, when mining the 590 and 592 longwall faces of the С6 seam. There-
fore, two series of fixations of the mine working contour movements were made at
the metering stations – during the drifting of the 590 longwall face, and then, after a
long period of time, when approaching and removing the 592 longwall face from the
metering station. Thus, it was possible to assess the state of reusable mine working
during the whole period of its operation.
The metering stations were located at different sites lengthwise the 590 and
592 panels of the longwall faces:
– PK47 was located in the area of the face entry of the 592 longwall face, and
the rock contour movements were fixed here when the longwall face recedes, that
is, during the primary roof caving, and its secondary roof caving happened
already at a sufficient removal from the PK47 and had insignificant influence;
therefore, the period of mine working deformation was estimated at the PK47
behind the stope faces from the active phase not far from the longwall face to the
zone of rock pressure stabilization at its removal for more than 60 – 80 m;
– PK31 was located at a distance of about 290 – 320 m from the face entry and
during the periodic readings fixation, all the characteristic zones for maintaining the
590 belt entry were considered: outside the zone of stope works influence, in the
bearing pressure zone, the “window” of the longwall face, the zone of the unstable
rock pressure in the immediate vicinity behind the longwall face and in the area of
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