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 FOURTH EDITION

OUR ORIGINS
ii
 4th

EDITION

OUR ORIGINS
DISCOVERING PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

CL ARK SPENCER L AR SEN

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSIT Y

n
W. W. N O RTO N & COM PA N Y
N E W YO R K • LO N D O N
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D.
Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s C
­ ooper
Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America
and abroad. By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly
­established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of
four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company
stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, 2008 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America.

Editor: Jake Schindel

Assistant Editor: Rachel Goodman
Development Editor: Sunny Hwang
Project Editors: Rachel Mayer and Caitlin Moran
Associate Director of Production: Benjamin Reynolds
Marketing Manager, Anthropology: Katie Sweeney
Associate Director of Digital Media: Tacy Quinn
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Composition and page layout: Brad Walrod
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Fourth Edition

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Larsen, Clark Spencer.
Title: Our origins : discovering physical anthropology / Clark Spencer Larsen, The Ohio State University.
Description: Fourth edition. | New York : W.W. Norton & Company, [2017] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016053370 | ISBN 9780393284904 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical anthropology.
Classification: LCC GN50.4 .L37 2017 | DDC 599.9—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016053370

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110-0017
www.wwnorton.com
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
 To Chris and Spencer,
with my deepest thanks for their help,
encouragement, and (unwavering) patience

In memory of Jack Repcheck

(January 13, 1957–October 14, 2015)
Editor, writing mentor, and friend
ABOUT THE
AUTHOR

CLARK SPENCER LARSEN is a native of

Nebraska. He received his B.A. from Kansas State University
and M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Michigan.
Clark’s research is in bioarchaeology, skeletal biology, and
paleoanthropology. He has worked in North America,
Europe, and Asia. His current fieldwork is in Turkey, Italy,
and the United States. He has taught at the University
of Massachusetts, Northern Illinois University, Purdue
University, and the University of North Carolina. Since
2001, he has been a member of the faculty at The Ohio
State University, where he is Distinguished Professor of
Social and Behavioral Sciences. He teaches introductory
physical anthropology, osteology, bioarchaeology, and
paleoanthropology. Clark has served as president of the
American Association of Physical Anthropologists and
as editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Physical
Anthropology. He is a member of the National Academy of
Sciences and a Fellow of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. In addition to Our Origins, he has
authored or edited 35 books and monographs, including
Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton,
Skeletons in Our Closet, Advances in Dental Anthropology, and
A Companion to Biological Anthropology.

vi
BASIC TABLE
OF CONTENTS

To the Instructor xxii

To the Student xxx

CHAPTER 1 What Is Physical Anthropology? 3

PART I The Present: Foundation for the Past 23

CHAPTER 2 Evolution: Constructing a Fundamental Scientific Theory 25
CHAPTER 3 Genetics: Reproducing Life and Producing Variation 55
CHAPTER 4 Genes and Their Evolution: Population Genetics 89
CHAPTER 5 Biology in the Present: Living People 125
CHAPTER 6 Biology in the Present: The Other Living Primates 167
CHAPTER 7 Primate Sociality, Social Behavior, and Culture 207

PART II The Past: Evidence for the Present 231

CHAPTER 8 Fossils and Their Place in Time and Nature 233
CHAPTER 9 Primate Origins and Evolution: The First 50 Million Years 273
CHAPTER 10 Early Hominid Origins and Evolution: The Roots of Humanity 309
CHAPTER 11 The Origins and Evolution of Early Homo 353
CHAPTER 12 The Origins, Evolution, and Dispersal of Modern People 391
CHAPTER 13 The Past 10,000 Years: Agriculture, Population, Biology 445

PART III The Future: The Shape of Things to Come 481

CHAPTER 14 Evolution: Today and Tomorrow 483

vii
TABLE OF
CONTENTS

Dedication v
About the Author vi
Basic Table of Contents vii
Table of Contents ix
List of Two-Page Spreads xx
To the Instructor xxii
Tools for Teaching and Learning xxv
Who Helped xxvi
To the Student xxx

CHAPTER 1 What Is Physical Anthropology? 3

BIG QUESTIONS 3
1.1 What Is Anthropology? 5
1.2 What Is Physical Anthropology? 6
What Do Physical Anthropologists Do? 7
HOW DO WE KNOW? Franz Boas Invents Anthropology, American Style 8
1.3 What Makes Humans So Different from Other Animals?: The Six Steps to Humanness 11
1.4 How We Know What We Know: The Scientific Method 16
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS The Forensic Anthropology of Decay 18

CHAPTER REVIEW 21
Answering the Big Questions 21
Key Terms 21
Study Quiz 21
Evolution Review: Physical Anthropology as Science 22
Additional Readings 22

ix
 PART I The Present: Foundation for the Past 23
CHAPTER 2 Evolution: Constructing a Fundamental Scientific Theory 25
BIG QUESTIONS 25
2.1 The Theory of Evolution: The Context for Darwin 28
Geology: Reconstructing Earth’s Dynamic History 29
Paleontology: Reconstructing the History of Life on Earth 29
Taxonomy and Systematics: Classifying Living Organisms and Identifying Their Biological Relationships 31
Demography: Influences on Population Size and Competition for Limited Resources 33
Evolutionary Biology: Explaining the Transformation of Earlier Life-Forms into Later Life-Forms 33
CONCEPT CHECK Darwin Borrows from Malthus 35
2.2 The Theory of Evolution: Darwin’s Contribution 35
HOW DO WE KNOW? Catastrophes in the Past: Their “Impact” on Evolution 36
CONCEPT CHECK Pre-Darwinian Theory and Ideas: Groundwork for Evolution 38
2.3 Since Darwin: Mechanisms of Inheritance, the Evolutionary Synthesis, and the Discovery of DNA 42
Mechanisms of Inheritance 42
The Evolutionary Synthesis, the Study of Populations, and the Causes of Evolution 43
DNA: Discovery of the Molecular Basis of Evolution 46
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Ebola: The Evolution of a Crisis 50

CHAPTER REVIEW 52
Answering the Big Questions 52
Key Terms 52
Study Quiz 52
Evolution Review: Past, Present, and Future of a Fundamental Scientific Theory 53
Additional Readings 53

CHAPTER 3 Genetics: Reproducing Life and Producing Variation 55

BIG QUESTIONS 55
3.1 The Cell: Its Role in Reproducing Life and Producing Variation 56
3.2 The DNA Molecule: The Genetic Code 60
DNA: The Blueprint of Life 61
3.3 The DNA Molecule: Replicating the Code 62
Chromosome Types 63
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Genomics and Human Evolution: Answers to Fundamental
Questions 64
3.4 Mitosis: Production of Identical Somatic Cells 66
CONCEPT CHECK The Two Steps of DNA Replication 67
HOW DO WE KNOW? Paleogenetics: Ancient DNA Opens New Windows on the Past 68
3.5 Meiosis: Production of Gametes (Sex Cells) 70
3.6 Producing Proteins: The Other Function of DNA 72
CONCEPT CHECK The Two Steps of Protein Synthesis 77
3.7 Genes: Structural and Regulatory 78

x | Table of Contents
 3.8 Polymorphisms: Variations in Specific Genes 79
Genotypes and Phenotypes: Genes and Their Expression 82
3.9 The Complexity of Genetics 82

CHAPTER REVIEW 86
Answering the Big Questions 86
Key Terms 86
Study Quiz 86
Evolution Review: Insights from Genetics 87
Additional Readings 87

CHAPTER 4 Genes and Their Evolution: Population Genetics 89

BIG QUESTIONS 89
4.1 Demes, Reproductive Isolation, and Species 90
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Got Milk? The LCT Phenotype: Lactose Tolerance and Lactase
Persistence 94
4.2 Hardy–Weinberg Law: Testing the Conditions of Genetic Equilibrium 96
4.3 Mutation: The Only Source of New Alleles 97
4.4 Natural Selection: Advantageous Characteristics, Survival, and Reproduction 101
Patterns of Natural Selection 101
Natural Selection in Animals: The Case of the Peppered Moth and Industrial Melanism 101
HOW DO WE KNOW? Hardy–Weinberg Visits the Classroom: The Case of PTC Tasters versus PTC
Nontasters 102
Natural Selection in Humans: Abnormal Hemoglobins and Resistance to Malaria 107
The Geography of Sickle-Cell Anemia and the Association with Malaria 108
The Biology of Sickle-Cell Anemia and Malarial Infection 109
The History of Sickle-Cell Anemia and Malaria 109
Other Hemoglobin and Enzyme Abnormalities 111
4.5 Genetic Drift: Genetic Change Due to Chance 113
Founder Effect: A Special Kind of Genetic Drift 115
4.6 Gene Flow: Spread of Genes across Population Boundaries 117
Agriculture and Origins of Modern Europeans 119
CONCEPT CHECK What Causes Evolution? 120

CHAPTER REVIEW 122

Answering the Big Questions 122
Key Terms 122
Study Quiz 122
Evolution Review: The Four Forces of Evolution 123
Additional Readings 123

CHAPTER 5 Biology In the Present: Living People 125

BIG QUESTIONS 125
5.1 Is Race a Valid, Biologically Meaningful Concept? 126
Brief History of the Race Concept 126
Debunking the Race Concept 127

Table of Contents | xi
 So-Called Racial Traits Are Not Concordant 127
Human Variation: Geographic Clines, Not Racial Categories 128
5.2 Life History: Growth and Development 129
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Is Race Real? 130
The Growth Cycle: Conception through Adulthood 132
Prenatal Stage: Sensitive to Environmental Stress, Predictive of Adult Health 132
Postnatal Stage: The Maturing Brain, Preparing for Adulthood 133
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Coronary Heart Disease Starts Early: Prenatal Origins of a Common
Killer 134
Adult Stage: Aging and Senescence 138
HOW DO WE KNOW? Life on the Margins: The Case of the East African Turkana Pastoralists 140
Evolution of Human Life History: Food, Sex, and Strategies for Survival and Reproduction 142
CONCEPT CHECK Life History Stages in Humans: Prenatal, Postnatal, and Adult 142
Prolonged Childhood: Fat-Bodied Moms and Their Big-Brained Babies 143
Grandmothering: Part of Human Adaptive Success 143
5.3 Adaptation: Meeting the Challenges of Living 143
Climate Adaptation: Living on the Margins 144
Heat Stress and Thermoregulation 144
Body Shape and Adaptation to Heat Stress 145
Cold Stress and Thermoregulation 146
Solar Radiation and Skin Color 147
Solar Radiation and Vitamin D Synthesis 148
Solar Radiation and Folate Protection 150
High Altitude and Access to Oxygen 150
Nutritional Adaptation: Energy, Nutrients, and Function 151
Macronutrients and Micronutrients 151
CONCEPT CHECK Adaptation: Heat, Cold, Solar Radiation, High Altitude 152
Human Nutrition Today 154
Overnutrition and the Consequences of Dietary Excess 154
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Life in an Obesogenic World:
Understanding the Obesity Pandemic in an Evolutionary Perspective 156
CONCEPT CHECK Nutritional Adaptation 160
Workload Adaptation: Skeletal Homeostasis and Function 160
Excessive Activity and Reproductive Ecology 161

CHAPTER REVIEW 164

Answering the Big Questions 164
Key Terms 164
Study Quiz 164
Evolution Review: Human Variation Today 165
Additional Readings 165

CHAPTER 6 Biology in the Present: The Other Living Primates 167

BIG QUESTIONS 167
6.1 What Is a Primate? 168

xii | Table of Contents

 Arboreal Adaptation—Primates Live in Trees and Are Good at It 169
Primates Have a Versatile Skeletal Structure 172
Primates Have an Enhanced Sense of Touch 174
Primates Have an Enhanced Sense of Vision 174
Primates Have a Reduced Reliance on Senses of Smell and Hearing 174
CONCEPT CHECK What Makes Primates Good at Living in Trees? 175
Dietary Plasticity—Primates Eat a Highly Varied Diet, and Their Teeth Reflect This Adaptive Versatility 176
Primates Have Retained Primitive Characteristics in Their Teeth 176
Primates Have a Reduced Number of Teeth 176
Primates Have Evolved Different Dental Specializations and Functional Emphases 177
Parental Investment—Primate Parents Provide Prolonged Care for Fewer but Smarter,
More Socially Complex, and Longer-Lived Offspring 179
CONCEPT CHECK What Gives Primates Their Dietary Flexibility? 179
CONCEPT CHECK Primate Parenting 182
6.2 What Are the Kinds of Primates? 182
The Strepsirhines 187
HOW DO WE KNOW? How Adaptable Are Primates? The Lemurs of St. Catherines Island 188
CONCEPT CHECK Monkey or Ape? Differences Matter 193
The Haplorhines 193
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Mitigating Endangerment 196
CONCEPT CHECK Strepsirhines and Haplorhines Differ in Their Anatomy and Senses 200

CHAPTER REVIEW 204

Answering the Big Questions 204
Key Terms 204
Study Quiz 204
Evolution Review: Our Closest Living Relatives 205
Additional Readings 205

CHAPTER 7 Primate Sociality, Social Behavior, and Culture 207

BIG QUESTIONS 207
7.1 Primate Societies: Diverse, Complex, Long-Lasting 208
Diversity of Primate Societies 208
Primate Social Behavior: Enhancing Survival and Reproduction 209
Primate Residence Patterns 209
Primate Reproductive Strategies: Males’ Differ from Females’ 211
CONCEPT CHECK Male and Female Reproductive Strategies 212
The Other Side of Competition: Cooperation in Primates 212
HOW DO WE KNOW? Chimpanzee Predators: A Model for Origins of Human Hunting 214
7.2 Getting Food 216
7.3 Acquiring Resources and Transmitting Knowledge: Got Culture? 217
7.4 Vocal and Nonvocal Communication Is Fundamental Behavior in Primate Societies 221
Translating Primate Communication: It’s About the Context 221
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Ethnoprimatology: Understanding Human-Nonhuman
Primate Co-Adaptation and Conservation in Indonesia 222

Table of Contents | xiii

 Predator Alarms: In Defense of the Primate Society 224
Chimpanzee Vocalization: Labeling the World Around Them 225
Gesturing Is Not Limited to Humans 227
Nonvocal Communication: Learning Signing 228

CHAPTER REVIEW 229

Answering the Big Questions 229
Key Terms 229
Study Quiz 229
Evolution Review: Primate Social Organization and Behavior 230
Additional Readings 230

PART II The Past: Evidence for the Present 231

CHAPTER 8 Fossils and Their Place in Time and Nature 233
BIG QUESTIONS 233
8.1 Fossils: Memories of the Biological Past 237
What Are Fossils? 237
Taphonomy and Fossilization 237
Types of Fossils 237
HOW DO WE KNOW? The Fossil Record: The Timing and Tempo of Evolution 240
Limitations of the Fossil Record: Representation Is Important 242
8.2 Just How Old Is the Past? 243
Time in Perspective 243
Geologic Time: Earth History 243
Relative and Numerical Age 248
Relative Methods of Dating: Which Is Older, Younger, the Same Age? 249
Stratigraphic Correlation 249
Chemical Dating 249
Biostratigraphic (Faunal) Dating 250
Cultural Dating 251
Absolute Methods of Dating: What Is the Numerical Age? 252
The Radiometric Revolution and the Dating Clock 252
The Revolution Continues: Radiopotassium Dating 257
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS The Atomic Bomb: Radiocarbon Dating 258
Non-Radiometric Absolute Dating Methods 260
Genetic Dating: The Molecular Clock 262
CONCEPT CHECK How Old Is It? 263
8.3 Reconstruction of Ancient Environments and Landscapes 264
The Driving Force in Shaping Environment: Temperature 265
Chemistry of Animal Remains and Ancient Soils: Windows onto Diets and Habitats 267

xiv | Table of Contents

CHAPTER REVIEW 270
Answering the Big Questions 270
Key Terms 270
Study Quiz 270
Evolution Review: The Fossil Record 271
Additional Readings 271

CHAPTER 9 Primate Origins and Evolution: The First 50 Million Years 273
BIG QUESTIONS 273
9.1 Why Did Primates Emerge? 275
9.2 The First True Primate: Visual, Tree-Dwelling, Agile, Smart 276
Primates in the Paleocene? 276
Eocene Euprimates: The First True Primates 277
The Anthropoid Ancestor: Euprimate Contenders 280
HOW DO WE KNOW? The Fayum Depression: Heartland of Anthropoid Ancestors 282
The First Anthropoids 284
9.3 Early Anthropoids Evolve and Thrive 285
CONCEPT CHECK When Were They Primates? Anatomy through Time 288
9.4 Coming to America: Origin of New World Higher Primates 289
How Anthropoids Got to South America 290
9.5 Apes Begin in Africa and Dominate the Miocene Primate World 292
9.6 Apes Leave Africa: On to New Habitats and New Adaptations 296
Apes in Europe: The Dryopithecids 296
Apes in Asia: The Sivapithecids 298
Dead End in Ape Evolution: The Oreopithecids 299
Climate Shifts and Habitat Changes 299
CONCEPT CHECK The First Apes: A Remarkable Radiation 300
Miocene Ape Survivors Give Rise to Modern Apes 300
9.7 Apes Return to Africa? 301
9.8 Monkeys on the Move 301
ANTHROPOLOGY MATTERS Fine Motor Skills: Are They Uniquely Human? 302

CHAPTER REVIEW 306

Answering the Big Questions 306
Key Terms 306
Study Quiz 306
Evolution Review: Primate Social Organization and Behavior: The Deep Roots of the Order Primates 307
Additional Readings 307

CHAPTER 10 Early Hominin Origins and Evolution: The Roots of

Humanity 309
BIG QUESTIONS 309
10.1 What Is a Hominin? 310
Bipedal Locomotion: Getting Around on Two Feet 311
Nonhoning Chewing: No Slicing, Mainly Grinding 314

Table of Contents | xv
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