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 t h e l a m a r s e r i e s i n w e s t e r n h i s t or y

The Lamar Series in Western History includes scholarly books of general

public interest that enhance the understanding of human affairs in the Ameri-
can West and contribute to a wider understanding of the West’s significance
in the political, social, and cultural life of America. Comprising works of the
highest quality, the series aims to increase the range and vitality of Western
American history, focusing on frontier places and people, Indian and ethnic
communities, the urban West and the environment, and the art and
illustrated history of the American West.

editorial board

Howard R. Lamar, Sterling Professor of History Emeritus,

Past President of Yale University

William J. Cronon, University of Wisconsin–Madison

Philip J. Deloria, University of Michigan
John Mack Faragher, Yale University
Jay Gitlin, Yale University
George A. Miles, Beinecke Library, Yale University
Martha A. Sandweiss, Amherst College
Virginia J. Scharff, University of New Mexico
Robert M. Utley, Former Chief Historian, National Park Service
David J. Weber, Southern Methodist University
 recent titles

War of a Thousand Deserts: Indian Raids and the U.S.–Mexican War,

by Brian DeLay
The Comanche Empire, by Pekka Hämäläinen
Frontiers: A Short History of the American West,
by Robert V. Hine and John Mack Faragher
Bordertown: The Odyssey of an American Place,
by Benjamin Heber Johnson and Jeffrey Gusky
Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle, by Matthew Klingle
Making Indian Law: The Hualapai Land Case and the Birth of Ethnohistory,
by Christian W. McMillen
The American Far West in the Twentieth Century, by Earl Pomeroy
Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.–Mexico Borderlands,
by Samuel Truett
Bárbaros: Spaniards and Their Savages in the Age of Enlightenment,
by David J. Weber

forthcoming titles

The Bourgeois Frontier, by Jay Gitlin

Defying the Odds: One California Tribe’s Struggle for Sovereignty in Three
Centuries, by Carole Goldberg and Gelya Frank
Under the Tonto Rim: Honor, Conscience, and Culture in the West, 1880–1930,
by Daniel Herman
William Clark’s World: Describing America in an Age of Unknowns,
by Peter Kastor
César Chávez, by Stephen J. Pitti
Geronimo, by Robert Utley
To view this image, please refer to the print version of this book.
The Spanish Frontier
in North America
the brief edition

David J. Weber

ya l e u n i v e r s i t y p re s s

ne w haven and l ondon

 Copyright © 2009 by Yale University. All rights reserved.
This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including
illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by
Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by
reviewers for the public press), without written permission from
the publishers.

Designed by Nancy Ovedovitz and set in Adobe Caslon type by

Binghamton Valley Composition, Binghamton, New York.
Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Weber, David J.
The Spanish frontier in North America / David J. Weber. —
The brief ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 978-0-300-14068-2 (alk. paper)
1. Southwest, New—History—To 1848. 2. Southern States—
History—Colonial period, ca. 1600–1775. 3. Spaniards—
Southwest, New—History. 4. Spaniards—Southern States—
History. 5. Frontier and pioneer life—Southwest, New.
6. Frontier and pioneer life—Southern States. I. Title.
F799.W42 2009
975'.02—dc22 2008026316

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British

Library.

This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992

(Permanence of Paper). It contains 30 percent postconsumer waste
(PCW) and is certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC).

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Frontispiece: A detail from William H. Powell’s romantic oil paint-

ing The Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto, 1541 (12' x 18'), com-
missioned in 1847 for the rotunda in the U.S. Capitol, where it
hangs yet today. Courtesy of the Architect of the U.S. Capitol.
Compadre, I entreat you to do me the favor of taking my son Antonio
among your troops, that when he is old, he may have a tale to tell.
Fulano de Escobedo to Alonso de León, Coahuila, ca. 1690
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

List of Maps, xi
Spanish Names and Words, xiii
Introduction, 1
1 Worlds Apart, 13
2 First Encounters, 26
3 Foundations of Empire: Florida and New Mexico, 48
4 Conquistadors of the Spirit, 69
5 Exploitation, Contention, and Rebellion, 90
6 Imperial Rivalry and Strategic Expansion: To Texas,
the Gulf Coast, and the High Plains, 109
7 Commercial Rivalry, Stagnation, and the Fortunes of War, 130
8 Indian Raiders and the Reorganization of Frontier Defenses, 153
9 Forging a Transcontinental Empire: New California to
the Floridas, 176

ix
 contents

10 Improvisations and Retreats: The Empire Lost, 199

11 Frontiers and Frontier Peoples Transformed, 221
12 The Spanish Legacy and the Historical Imagination, 243
For Further Reading, 265
Index, 279

x
 Maps

1 Spanish explorers, 1513–43, 27

2 The Spanish frontier, ca. 1550–1600, 52
3 Pueblos in New Mexico, ca. 1650, 71
4 Missions in Spanish Florida, ca. 1674–75, 75
5 English Raids on Florida during the War of the Spanish
Succession, 105
6 Texas and the Gulf Coast, 1685–1721, 114
7 The Villasur Expedition, 1720, 128
8 Florida during the War of Jenkins’ Ear, 1739–42, 137
9 Spanish-Franco-Indian Frontiers in the mid-eighteenth
century, 140
10 Presidios of northern New Spain, ca. 1766–68, 154
11 Sonora and the coasts of the Californias, ca. 1769, 178
12 The reconnaissance of 1774–76, 186

xi
 maps

13 Spanish settlements in New California, 1784, 193

14 The Gulf Coast during the American Revolution, 196
15 The disputed Spanish–American border, 1783–95, 204
16 New Spain’s disputed northern border, 1803–19, 214

xii
 Spanish Names and Words

Hispanic surnames usually include the names of one’s father and mother, the
father’s name preceding the mother’s, as in Luis del Río Jiménez. If a person
prefers to use only one name, it is usually the name of the father (in this case,
Río) rather than the mother’s name ( Jiménez). Then and now, however, ex-
ceptions were common. Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, for example, did not
inherit his father’s name, which was Vera, but rather the name of Núñez, an il-
lustrious ancestor on his mother’s side, along with his mother’s family name,
Cabeza de Vaca. He dropped Núñez in favor of Cabeza de Vaca, an even more
illustrious family name, and so modern writers have followed his lead by refer-
ring to him as Cabeza de Vaca instead of Núñez.
The irregularities of Spanish usage have been compounded by eccentric
Anglo-American practices. The name of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado y
Luxán, for example (whose mother’s name was Luxán), appears in docu-
ments of his day by the name of his father, Vázquez or Vázquez de Coron-
ado, but Americans have come to know him simply as Coronado. The
incorrect American usage has become so entrenched that it seems wise to
yield to the traditional error rather than jolt readers by making the familiar

xiii
 spanish names and words

strange. Similarly, Hernando de Soto and Diego de Vargas would be ren-

dered Soto and Vargas throughout most of the Spanish-speaking world, but
Anglo-Americans know them as De Soto and De Vargas, and that usage
seems destined to prevail.
For the convenience of English-speaking readers, I have also used
present-day renderings of some place-names: the familiar spelling of St.
Augustine, for example, for San Agustín; Apalachee instead of Apalache;
and San Antonio for the town known properly in the colonial era as San
Fernando de Béxar. Words that should bear an accent but that have become
incorporated into English appear without diacritical markings. Hence,
Santa Barbara, Santa Fe, and Mexico, rather than Santa Bárbara, Santa Fé,
and México. This leads to some inevitable inconsistency. Rio, or river, carries
no accent when used with the familiar Rio Grande, but Río Rojo does.
In Spanish, titles such as duque for duke, marqués for marquis, don for sir,
and fray for friar appear in lowercase, even when combined with a proper
name, as in the marqués de Rubí, don Tomás Vélez Cachupín, or fray Junípero
Serra. Because their meaning is well known to American readers, I have re-
tained these titles in Spanish and left them in lowercase. Titles that may seem
strange to American readers, such as virrey (viceroy), appear in English.
I have used Spanish words so sparingly that a glossary seems unnecessary,
but I define the few exceptions, such as mestizo and encomienda, when I use
them for the first time. The index, then, should be your guide to definitions.

xiv
the spanish frontier in north america
This page intentionally left blank
 Introduction

We Americans have yet to really learn our own antecedents. . . . Thus far,
impress’d by New England writers and schoolmasters, we tacitly abandon
ourselves to the notion that our United States have been fashion’d from
the British Islands only . . . which is a very great mistake.
—Walt Whitman, 1883

Across the southern rim of the United States, from the Atlantic to the Pa-
cific, aged buildings stand as mute reminders of an earlier Hispanic America
that has vanished. On Florida’s Atlantic coast, some seventy miles south of
the Georgia border, a great symmetrical stone fortress, the Castillo de San
Marcos, still occupies the ground where its bastions once commanded the
land and water approaches to Spanish St. Augustine. Founded in 1565, the
town of St. Augustine itself is the oldest continuously occupied European
settlement in the continental United States. Farther west, at Pensacola, in
the Florida panhandle, the ruins of the eighteenth-century Spanish forts of
Barrancas and San Carlos look out over the shallow waters of the Gulf of
Mexico. In New Orleans’s vibrant French Quarter, nearly all of the oldest

1
 introduction

To view this image, please refer to the print version of this book.

1. The Castillo of San Marcos at St. Augustine. Courtesy,

National Park Service, Harpers Ferry.

buildings were constructed in the city’s Spanish era, between 1763 and 1800.
Fires in 1788 and 1794 obliterated the earlier, French-built New Orleans,
so that even those venerable and much-modified landmarks on Jackson
Square—the Cabildo, the St. Louis Cathedral, and the Presbytère—date to
the era when New Orleans and all of Louisiana belonged to Spain.
Still farther west, across southwestern America from Texas to California,
preserved or reconstructed Spanish forts, public buildings, homes, and mis-
sions dot the arid landscape. Today, some of those structures serve as muse-
ums, perhaps the best known being the old stone mission in downtown San
Antonio, popularly called the Alamo, and the long, one-story adobe Gover-
nor’s Palace facing the plaza in Santa Fe. Other buildings continue to serve
their original functions. Near Tucson, for example, desert-dwelling Pima
Indians still receive the sacraments inside the thick walls of the dazzlingly
white mission church of San Xavier del Bac.

2
 introduction

To view this image, please refer to the print version of this book.

2. The Palace of the Governors at Santa Fe as viewed from the plaza. Photograph
by Arthur Taylor, 1977. Courtesy, Museum of New Mexico, neg. no. 70213.

Old walls of stone and adobe remain among the most visible reminders
that the northern fringes of Spain’s vast New World empire once extended
well into the area of the present-day United States. Spain’s tenure in North
America began at least as early as 1513, when Juan Ponce de León stepped
ashore on a Florida beach, and did not end until Mexico won independence
in 1821. Spain governed parts of the continent for well over two centuries,
longer than the United States has existed as an independent nation.
The extent of Spanish control over North America shifted with its politi-
cal fortunes and those of its European and Indian rivals, but Spanish sover-
eignty extended at one time or another at least as far north as Virginia on the
Atlantic and Canada on the Pacific. Between the two coasts, Spain claimed
much of the American South and the entire West, at least half of the conti-
nental United States. Present-day Spain is three-fourths the size of Texas,
yet its imperial claims in North America alone embraced an area larger than
Western Europe.

3
 introduction

To view this image, please refer to the print version of this book.

3. The Mission of San Xavier del Bac. Courtesy, Jim Griffith,

Southwest Folklore Center, University of Arizona.

Not only did Spain claim much of what is today the United States, but its
sons and daughters settled throughout the continent’s southern tier, building
towns, missions, and fortifications from Virginia through Florida on the At-
lantic, from San Diego to San Francisco on the Pacific, and across the states
that make up the present American South and Southwest. Spanish subjects
also found their way over trails that took them deep into the continent, pur-
suing treasure in Tennessee, fighting Pawnee and Oto Indians on the Platte
River in Nebraska, and exploring the Great Basin.
In the more northerly latitudes of America, no physical remains of
Spain’s presence have endured, but across the land the names of states,
counties, towns, rivers, valleys, mountains, and other natural features, from
California to Cape Canaveral, testify to America’s Spanish origins. The
Spanish derivation of most of these place-names is obvious, but for some it

4
 introduction

is not. The name of Key West, for example, holds no hint that it derives
from Cayo Hueso (Bone Key), words that Americans would mispronounce
and misspell.
Less evident than buildings or place-names, but of greater significance,
are the human and environmental transformations that accompanied Spain’s
conquest and settlement of North America. Spaniards introduced an aston-
ishing array of life-forms to the continent, ranging from cattle, sheep, and
horses to the grasses those animals ate. At the same time, Spaniards unwit-
tingly introduced alien diseases that ended the lives of countless Native
Americans and inadvertently created new ecological niches for the peoples,
plants, and animals that crossed the Atlantic.
This brief edition of The Spanish Frontier in North America explains
Spain’s impact on the lives, institutions, and environments of native peoples
of North America and the impact of North America on the lives and insti-
tutions of those Spaniards who explored and settled what has now become
the United States. It does so with concision. Intended for general readers,
it is a condensed version of a longer book with the same title. This brief
edition does not contain the notes or bibliography or acknowledgments of
the original edition, and it represents less than 60 percent of the text. Those
seeking to locate my sources should consult the unabridged edition of Span-
ish Frontier in North America, which Yale published in 1992. The section “For
Further Reading” at the end of this book contains guidance to publications
that have appeared since 1992.
This brief edition fills the need for a survey that, as one of my neighbors in
New Mexico diplomatically explained to me, will not tell readers more than
they need to know. I suspect that many of my students felt the same way
about the longer book but were reluctant to confess that to their professor.

The idea of Spaniards in North America requires definitions. First, I use

Spaniard as a political and cultural term, not as a racial category. Although
Spaniards proudly proclaimed their purity of blood and diligently sought to
protect the limpieza de sangre of their families, considerable racial mixture
had occurred on the Iberian Peninsula even before the discovery of America.
In North America most of Spain’s subjects were either mestizos (a word that
when used loosely meant racially mixed peoples), mulattos, Indians, or

5
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