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Joint RES and Distribution Network
Expansion Planning Under a Demand
Response Framework
Joint RES and Distribution
Network Expansion Planning
Under a Demand Response
Framework

Javier Contreras, Miguel Asensio, Pilar Meneses de Quevedo,

Gregorio Muñoz-Delgado, and Sergio Montoya-Bueno
School of Industrial Engineering, University of Castilla - La Mancha,
Ciudad Real, Spain

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CHAPTER
Introduction
1
An energy system usually consists of generation units, transmission
networks, distribution networks, consumption centers, and control,
protection, and regulation equipment [1]. Electric power systems have
developed along more or less the same lines in all countries, converging
toward a very similar structure and configuration. Electric power systems
are conditioned by the fact that generation and demand must be in instan-
taneous and permanent balance. Distribution networks are an important
part of the electrical system, since they supply energy from distribution
substations to end users. Distribution networks are typically three-phased,
and the standard operating voltages are 30, 20, 15, and 10 kV. The
structure of this medium-voltage network may vary, but its operation is
always radial. Substations normally house circuit-breakers that protect
the so-called feeders, ie, lines running to other transformer stations where
the voltage is stepped down again to supply low-voltage power. These
networks have been designed with wide operating ranges, which allows
them to be passively operated resulting in a more economical management.
Distribution substations are fed through one or several medium-
voltage networks, although sometimes, can be directly connected to
high-voltage networks. Each distribution substation meets the energy
by means of one or several primary feeders. Generally, a distribution
substation contains: (1) protection devices, (2) measure devices,
(3) voltage regulators, and (4) transformers [2].

From a centralized standpoint, distribution companies are responsi-

ble for operation and planning. Distribution companies must satisfy the
growing demand with quality and in a secure fashion. Therefore, plan-
ning models are used to obtain an optimal investment plan at minimum
cost meeting the security and quality imposed requirements. These plan-
ning models are based on capacity distribution network expansion con-
sidering: (1) replacement and addition of feeders, (2) reinforcement of
existing substations and the construction of new substations, and
(3) installation of new transformers [3].

Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework

Diesel and heavy fuel oil generation units currently dominate the gen-
eration mix in small islands. The natural increasing load factors in peak
periods are putting stress on real systems, leading to the use of peak load
plants to cover those consumption peaks and, therefore, incurring higher
costs for the whole system. Islands will face in the future considerable
challenges in order to meet their energy needs in a sustainable, afford-
able, and reliable way.

The main reasons behind this choice are the relative ease to purchase
fuel (compared to liquefied natural gas or compressed natural gas), the
flexibility of the installed engines in meeting daily and seasonal varia-
tions in energy demand, and the lack of storage. Furthermore, the need
to maintain adequate levels of redundancy in case of a failure of a pro-
ducing unit has led companies to prefer several smaller units instead of
one large generator. In addition, diesel engines’ efficient operation
across volatile demand scenarios, along with their relatively low instal-
lation and maintenance costs, has made this technology the backbone
of most island power generation systems.

Policy makers have promoted wind and solar generation in an effort

to improve the sustainability of electric power systems, being subject to
different incentive schemes that have led to a significant penetration of
those technologies. Isolated energy systems share common characteristics
and are subject to common challenges, especially from the security of sup-
ply and system stability perspectives. Threats experienced by isolated sys-
tems as a consequence of increasing DG penetration are even higher since
they cannot depend on the smoothing effect of a large balancing area.

Renewable generation technologies have been promoted by policy

makers throughout the years in an effort to increase the sustainability of
electric power systems. However, threats experienced by isolated systems
as a consequence of the increasing distributed generation (DG) penetra-
tion are higher than those experienced by interconnected systems, since
they cannot depend on the smoothing effect of a large balancing area
and interconnection flows. In addition, renewable technologies are
becoming price-competitive, especially in isolated systems, where diesel
and heavy fuel oil generation units dominate the generation mix. The
widespread growth of DG, mainly due to the penetration of renewable
energy, inevitably requires the inclusion of this kind of generation in
planning models [4 6]. In Ref. [7] the multistage expansion planning
problem of a distribution system where investments in the distribution
network and in the DG are jointly considered is presented.
 Introduction 3

Uncertainty is present in load demand, wind, and photovoltaic (PV)

energy production. On one hand, many tools have been developed for
load forecasting with good results. On the other hand, wind and PV
energy production uncertainty are the most difficult to manage because
of their high variability which depends on weather, where many vari-
ables are present. The increasing penetration of nondispatchable tech-
nologies in overall energy mix calls for the inclusion of uncertainty
associated to production stochasticity of renewable technologies (wind,
solar) involved in the expansion planning model.
An algorithm based on Refs. [3] and [8] is developed to decide the
joint expansion planning of DG and distribution network. The optimi-
zation model decides the addition, replacement, or reinforcement of
different assets such as feeders, transformers, substations, and generators.
Planning models have been used for many years to optimize generation
investments in electric power systems. However, these models have not
been completely adapted in order to treat DR on an equal footing. This
chapter stresses the importance of integrating DR to time-varying prices
(real-time prices) into those investment models. Own-and cross-price
elasticities are included in order to incorporate consumers’ willingness to
adjust the demand profile in response to price changes. The concept of
“flexible demand” has generated significant interest but is still in the early
developmental stages. Additionally, a few demonstration projects have
tested the actual capability of loads to be controlled in order to cope with
the challenges posed by increasing renewables penetration.
Variability and uncertainty are not unique to stochastic generation
resources. Similar challenges are posed by aggregated electricity demand
and, to a certain extent, by supply resources. Over the years, different
techniques for managing the variability of demand and generation of the
system through the use of reserves have been developed by grid operators.

The role of demand has recently attracted an increasing interest in

power systems. Given the desired integration of uncontrollable renewable
generation, the traditional paradigm of controllability provision only by
the generation side will not be economically sustainable. Furthermore,
environmental and security of supply concerns have also flatten the way
for the electrification of transport and heat sectors, which is expected to
introduce a significant amount of new demand in power systems.

Additionally the integration of energy storage systems (ESS) in dis-

tribution networks may lead to challenges coming from the
4 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework

intermittency and uncertainty of renewable energy resources (RES)

and the economic aspects of the integration of ESS in electrical distri-
bution systems. ESS may contribute to increase the integration of the
power generated by RES [9] and also to reduce generation costs and
improve the quality of the power supply [10]. Nevertheless, ESS are
still expensive [11, 12].

1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION

Planning models have been used for many years to optimize generation
investments in electric power systems. However, these models have not
been completely adapted in order to treat price-dependent resources,
such as DR or ESS, on an equal footing.
Distribution system planning strategies have traditionally followed
an established rule-based experience. A new capacity has been built
once the load growth value has reached a predetermined threshold.
This new capacity has been obtained by expanding the capacity of pre-
existing substations or considering the addition of new substations.
Authors in Refs. [13 18] propose different approaches to solve a
Distribution Company (DISCO)’s distribution expansion planning.
Under this framework, DISCOs aim to improve their profits and mini-
mize the investment risk to meet the growth demands in their territo-
ries on a reliable way while keeping the electricity bills for their
consumers affordable.
Distribution networks were traditionally not designed to accommo-
date generation and therefore DISCOs have not included DG in their
expansion planning. Renewable generation technologies have been
promoted by policy makers throughout the years in an effort to
increase the sustainability of electric power systems. In addition,
renewable technologies are becoming price-competitive, especially in
isolated systems, where diesel and heavy fuel oil generation units domi-
nate the generation mix. This situation has completely modified the
planning, operation, and maintenance of distribution networks for the
DISCOs [19 32].

The role of DR and ESS has recently attracted an increasing inter-

est in power systems. However, previous models have not been
completely adapted in order to treat DR and ESS on an equal footing.
Authors in Refs. [32] and [33] analyze the effects of integrating
 Introduction 5

short-term DR into long-term investment planning, defining an

analytical framework to incorporate DR in long-term resource planning.
An hourly model is proposed, stressing the importance of integrating
short-term DR to time-varying prices into long-term investment mod-
els. Own- and cross-price elasticities are used to quantify willingness of
consumers to modify their consumption patterns. A network invest-
ment planning model for high penetration of wind energy under DR
program is presented in Ref. [34]. The transmission planning problem
is modeled in the framework of a linear optimization problem and a
nonlinear optimization process is used to analyze the Monte Carlo
results. In Ref. [35] the effects of DR on generation expansion plan-
ning in restructured power systems are modeled. Authors in Ref. [36]
provide an alternative approach to model load levels in electric power
systems with high renewable penetration. The approach introduces the
concept of system states as opposed to load levels, allowing a better
incorporation of chronological information in power system models.

This book enhances previous approaches considering that a sym-

metric treatment of load and generation creates the strongest possible
incentive for final consumers to actively participate in the wholesale
electricity market. This book translates this argument to medium- and
long-term distribution and generation expansion planning procedures.
DR and ESS will play more and more a significant role in future
expansion planning model. This book stresses their relevance, includ-
ing additional considerations to the planning model.
The main objective of this book is the implementation of an algo-
rithm to decide the joint expansion planning of DG and the distribu-
tion network. The outcomes of the model are the locations and sizes of
new generation assets to be installed when fixed and variable costs are
known. The model introduces other issues relevant to planning in insu-
lar distribution systems, including DR and hybrid storage.

1.2 OUTLINE
This book contains eight chapters, including an introductory chapter
where the addressed topic is introduced and the available technical lit-
erature is presented. Notation used in this chapter will be used
throughout the book. In chapter “Renewable Power Generation
Models,” the renewable production models for wind and PV are
6 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework

described. The considered production models relate the RES (wind

speed and irradiation) with the output power of each generator. In
chapter, “Uncertainty Modeling,” uncertainty modeling is developed
taking into account the load, wind, and PV uncertainty. Motivation
for the proposed approach to approximate demand curve by load
levels making the problem tractable is detailed. Chapter “Demand
Response Modeling” reflects the analytical framework to incorporate
DR in long-term resource planning, stressing the importance of incor-
porating price-varying DR into investment models. Effects of DR to
time-varying prices are presented. ESS are described in terms of bene-
fits and technologies in insular grids are described in chapter “Energy
Storage Systems Modeling.” Additionally the generic energy storage
device used in this expansion planning is presented. The mathematical
formulation for the optimization problem of distribution network
expansion planning is presented in chapter “Optimization Problem
Formulation.” A multistage planning framework is presented where
radial operation of the distribution network is explicitly imposed an
approximate network model is used. Costs of losses are included in the
objective function and several investment alternatives exist for each
asset. A case study based on a real distribution network (La Graciosa
in the Canary Islands), composed of 26 nodes and 37 branches, is pre-
sented and used for demonstration in chapter “Case Study.” A base
case has been defined for the comparison of the results, where neither
DR nor ESS is considered in generation and distribution expansion
planning. The model has been enhanced, including the integration of
DR in generation and distribution expansion planning, the integration
of ESS in generation and distribution expansion planning, and the inte-
gration of both DR and ESS in generation and distribution expansion
planning. A cost benefit analysis of the considered case studies is pro-
vided. The last chapter includes a summary of the work is presented,
the conclusions drawn, and future work is proposed.
CHAPTER 2
Renewable Power Generation Models

This chapter provides a brief overview on the generation

models developed for renewable distributed generation units. These
production models relate the renewable energy resource with
the output power of each generator. Despite the vast range of
renewable technologies, the section focuses on wind and PV
technologies. Hybrid storage technologies will be discussed in the
corresponding section.

2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY

2.1.1 Introduction
The photoelectric effect consists of converting the sun’s radiation into
electricity. This process is achieved by the property of some materials
to absorb photons and emit electrons. The materials used in PV cells
are semiconductors (see Fig. 2.1).

The equivalent circuit for a PV cell consists of a real diode in parallel

with an ideal current source. The ideal current source delivers a current
proportional to the solar flux or irradiance. Furthermore, the behavior
is modeled by adding a resistor in parallel and in series. The equivalent
circuit is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.1 Photovoltaic cell diagram.

Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
8 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework

Figure 2.2 Real circuit for a PV cell.

The Kirchhoff’s expression of the equivalent circuit for a PV cell

results as follows:

I 5 ISC C 2 I0 ðeqVd =kT 2 1Þ 2 Vd =Rp (2.1)

where:
Vd 5 voltage across the diode terminals (V);
q 5 electron charge (1.6 3 10219 C);
k 5 Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 3 10223 J/K);
T 5 temperature (K);
I0 5 reverse saturation current (A).
RP 5 parallel resistance (Ω).

2.1.2 Power Output and IV Curves

The power curve is the most important diagram of a PV module.
Fig. 2.3 represents a generic IV curve and the power output for
a PV module, where several parameters can be identified, such as
short-circuit currents and open-circuit voltages. Additionally the
diagram provides the power delivered by the module as the product of
current and voltage. It can be observed how output power varies depend-
ing on current and voltage. The maximum output power (Pmax ) is
reached by Impp and Vmpp and is the usual working point for PV panels.

The curves are affected by temperature and irradiation. The

expression of the relationship between irradiation and current is:
ISC ðCEMÞ
ISC 5 G (2.2)
1000
where:

G 5 solar irradiance (W/m2);

ISC 5 short-circuit current at CEM conditions (A).
 Renewable Power Generation Models 9

Figure 2.3 IV curve and power output for a PV module.

The temperature of a PV cell increases with ambient temperature and

reheating from irradiance. The equation that considers these effects is:


NOCT 2 20 C
Tcell 5 Tamb 1 G (2.3)
0:8
where:

Tcell 5 cell temperature ( C);

G 5 solar irradiance (kW/m2);
Tamb 5 ambient temperature ( C);
NOCT 5 nominal operating cell temperature conditions ( C).
Fig. 2.4 shows the effect of irradiation and temperature on IV
curves.

2.1.3 Parameters and Operating Conditions

There are some parameters and operating conditions to be defined for
PV modules.
The electrical parameters are:

• Maximum power (Pmax ): corresponds to the point where the product

of current and voltage is maximum. Its other name is peak power.
• Open-circuit voltage (Voc ): is the open-circuit voltage output (with-
out load) of a PV cell when solar irradiance and temperature data
are known.
10 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework

Figure 2.4 IV curves under different temperatures and irradiance.

• Short-circuit current (ISC ): is the short-circuit current output of a PV

cell when solar irradiance and temperature data are known.
• Voltage at the maximum power point (Vmpp ).
The thermal parameters are:

• Currenttemperature coefficient (α): indicates the variance of the

short-circuit current with an increasing temperature. It can be an
absolute value mA/ C or a relative value %/ C.
• Voltagetemperature coefficient (β): indicates the variance of the
open-circuit voltage with an increasing temperature (negative value).
It can be an absolute value mV/ C or a relative value %/ C.
• Powertemperature coefficient (δ): indicates the variance of the
maximum power with increasing temperature. It can be an absolute
value W/ C or a relative value %/ C.

The operating conditions are shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 for
standard test conditions (STC) and nominal operating cell temperature
(NOCT), respectively.
 Renewable Power Generation Models 11

Table 2.1 Standard Test Conditions (STC)

Solar irradiance 1 kW/m2
Air mass ratio AM1.5
Temperature 25 C
No wind

Table 2.2 Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

Solar irradiance 800 W/m2
Wind speed 1 m/s
Temperature 20 C
Mounting 5 open back side

2.1.4 Models for Photovoltaic Systems

In this section, three different models of PV production are shown.

2.1.4.1 Progensa’s Model [37]

This model reflects the effect of temperature and uses the power
temperature coefficient. The output of the PV panel Pout is estimated
using (2.4) and its efficiency can be estimated by means of (2.5).

Pout 5 AGηout (2.4)

ηout 5 ηSTC ½1 1 δðTcell 2 25Þ (2.5)

where:
A 5 area of the PV panel (m2);
G 5 solar irradiance (W/m2);
ηout 5 efficiency in a determined operating condition;
ηSTC 5 efficiency at standard test conditions;
Tcell 5 cell temperature ( C);
δ 5 powertemperature coefficient (%/ C).

Combining (2.4) and (2.5), the power output of a PV panel can

be expressed in terms of the power obtained under standard test
conditions ðPSTC Þ.
 
G
Pout 5 PSTC ½1 1 δðTcell 2 25Þ (2.6)
1000
12 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework


NOCT 2 20 C
Tcell 5 Tamb 1 G (2.7)
800
where:

G 5 solar irradiance (W/m2);

PSTC 5 power under standard test conditions (STC) (W);
Tamb 5 ambient temperature ( C);
Tcell 5 cell temperature ( C);
δ 5 powertemperature coefficient (%/ C);
NOCT 5 nominal operating cell temperature conditions ( C).

2.1.4.2 Atwa’s Model [38]

Atwa presents a simple photovoltaic panel model. The output power of
the PV module is dependent on solar irradiance and ambient
temperature of the site as well as the characteristics of the module
itself. The cell temperature is calculated using (2.3). Current and
voltage outputs for a PV panel ðPout Þ are determined by (2.8) and (2.9).
Iout 5 G½ISC 1 αðTcell 2 25Þ (2.8)
Vout 5 Voc 1 βTcell (2.9)
where:

Iout 5 output current (A);

G 5 solar irradiance (W/m2);
ISC 5 short-circuit current at STC conditions (A);
α 5 currenttemperature coefficient (A/ C);
Tcell 5 cell temperature ( C);
Vout 5 output voltage (V);
Voc 5 open-circuit voltage at STC conditions (V);
β 5 voltagetemperature coefficient (V/ C).

Furthermore, the fill factor ðFFÞ is estimated as:

Vmpp Impp
FF 5 (2.10)
Voc ISC
where:

Vmpp 5 voltage at the maximum power point (V);

Impp 5 current at the maximum power point (A).
 Renewable Power Generation Models 13

Then, the power output of the PV model is calculated as:

Pout 5 FFIout Vout (2.11)

2.1.4.3 Borowy’s Model [39]

Borowy proposes a model to determine the power output of a PV module.
The model assumes the use of a maximum power point tracker. The max-
imum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid connected
inverters use to obtain the maximum possible power from a PV device.
This model can be divided into several parts:

• Temperature variation
The cell temperature is calculated using (2.3). The variation is calcu-
lated by the following equation:
ΔT 5 Tcell 2 25 (2.12)
where:
Tcell 5 cell temperature ( C).
• Current variation
The current depends on irradiation and temperature:



G G
ΔI 5 α ΔT 1 2 1 ISC (2.13)
1000 1000
where:
α 5 currenttemperature coefficient (A/ C);
ISC 5 short-circuit current at STC conditions (A);
G 5 solar irradiance (W/m2).
• Voltage variation
ΔV 5 2βΔT 2 Rs ΔI (2.14)
where:
β 5 voltagetemperature coefficient (V/ C);
Rs 5 series resistance (Ω).
• Constants

  
Impp 2 Vmpp
C1 5 1 2 exp (2.15)
ISC C2 Voc

Vmpp =Voc 2 1
C2 5 (2.16)
lnð1 2 Impp =ISC Þ
14 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework

where:
Impp 5 current at maximum power point (A);
Vmpp 5 voltage at maximum power point (V);
Voc 5 open-circuit voltage (V).
• Module current
 
 
V 1 ΔV
I ðV Þ 5 ISC 1 2 C1 exp 2 1 1 ΔI (2.17)
C2 Voc

where:
I 5 output current (A);
V 5 output voltage (V).
• Maximum module power output
To determine the maximum output power of a PV model, it is nec-
essary to evaluate expression (2.18) for different values of voltage.
The voltage values are between 0 and 1.32 times Voc .

out 5 VI
Pmax (2.18)
where:
out 5 maximum output power (W).
Pmax

2.2 WIND ENERGY

2.2.1 Introduction
Wind energy is a source of renewable power coming from the air cur-
rent flowing across the earth’s surface. Wind turbines harvest kinetic
energy from the wind flow and convert it into usable power. The origin
of wind power is shown in expression (2.19).

Considering a cube of air mass m moving at a speed v (Fig. 2.5),

the kinetic energy associated is defined by the following equation:

1
Ekinetic 5 mv2 (2.19)
2

Figure 2.5 Cube of air mass m moving at a speed v.

 Renewable Power Generation Models 15

Figure 2.6 Air mass moving at a speed through area.

where:

m 5 mass (kg);
v 5 speed (m/s).

The power represented by a mass of air moving at velocity v

through area A will be (Fig. 2.6):


1 Mass 2
Pkinetic 5 v (2.20)
2 Time

The mass flow rate m, _ through area A, can be formulated as the

product of air density ρ, speed v, and cross-sectional area A:


Mass through A
_ 5 ρAv
5m (2.21)
Time

Combining (2.20) with (2.21) gives the following relation:

1
Pwind 5 ρAv3 (2.22)
2
where:

ρ 5 air density (kg/m3);

A 5 cross-sectional area (m2);
v 5 wind speed normal to A (m/s).
Wind turbines turn with the moving air and power an electric gen-
erator that supplies an electric current. The wind turns the blades, spin-
ning a shaft which is connected to a generator.
In Fig. 2.7, the upwind velocity is v, the velocity of the wind
through the plane of the rotor blades is vb and the downwind velocity
16 Joint RES and Distribution Network Expansion Planning under a Demand Response Framework

Figure 2.7 Wind through a wind turbine.

is vd . The power produced by the blades, Pb , is equal to the difference

in kinetic energy between the upwind and downwind air flows:
1
_ 2 2 v2d Þ
Pb 5 mðv (2.23)
2
_ of the air within the stream tube is
The mass flow rate, m,
defined as:

_ 5 ρAvb
m (2.24)

Assuming that the velocity of the wind through the plane of the
rotor is just the average of the upwind and downwind speeds, then,
the new expression is:


1 v 1 vd
Pb 5 ρA ðv2 2 v2d Þ (2.25)
2 2

The ratio of downstream to upstream wind speed is defined as λ.

v
d
λ5 (2.26)
v
Substituting (2.25) into (2.26) gives:

  
1 v 1 λv 2 1 3 1
Pb 5 ρA ðv 2 λ v Þ 5 ρAv
2 2
ð1 1 λÞð1 2 λ Þ
2
(2.27)
2 2 2 2

Eq. (2.27) shows how the power produced by wind is equal to the
upstream power in the wind multiplied by a fraction. The fraction
designated as Cp refers to the efficiency of the rotor (2.28).
 Renewable Power Generation Models 17

1
Cp 5 ð1 1 λÞð1 2 λ2 Þ (2.28)
2
The efficiency of the rotor can be represented versus to the wind
speed ratio.

Fig. 2.8 shows the point where the efficiency of the rotor is maximum.
This point can be determined deriving (2.28) with respect to λ and set it
equal to zero:
dCp 1
5 ð1 1 λÞð1 2 2λÞð1 2 λ2 Þ 5 0 (2.29)
dλ 2
This expression has as solution:
vd 1
λ5 5 (2.30)
v 3
Substituting (2.30) into (2.28), the maximum blade efficiency is
attained.



1 1 1
Maximum rotor efficiency 5 11 1 2 2 5 59:3% (2.31)
2 3 3
Eq. (2.31) expressed the maximum rotor efficiency that is known as
Betz efficiency.

Figure 2.8 Rotor efficiency.

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