Institute of Engineering & Management

University of Engineering & Management

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

Course Title: Physics

Course Code : BSCPH101/201

SUPPLEMENTARY STUDY MATERIALS

Academic Year : 2023-2024

 INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
(AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
PHYSICS

Course Objective:

1. To train the students to grasp the concepts of different areas of physics,

appropriate for applications in different branches of engineering.

2. To expand their knowledge of Physics, which will be suitable for different

engineering streams.

3. Learn to apply the different theories of physics in real life problems.

4. Try to think new problems of physics for applications in engineering.

Course Outcomes
The first-year B. Tech physics course offers theoretical foundation for a variety of engineering
specialties, including mechanical, electrical, electronics, and computer science. It generates a thorough
knowledge in the fundamentals of engineering and science. The course will enable the student to:

CO1: Develop an understanding of the basic concepts of theories of different areas of physics such as
optics, electromagnetic theory, electron theory of solids, classical mechanics, quantum mechanics and
statistical mechanics for engineering applications in societal and environmental contexts..

CO2: Study in detail the structure and properties of solid state materials, including metals,
semiconductors, dielectrics and magnetic materials. Use the basic concepts of optics to learn
interference, diffraction and LASER. Use the concepts of classical mechanics to learn the properties of
different mechanical systems.

CO3: Use the concepts of quantum mechanics to study the structure and properties of solids, gain
about fundamental quantum mechanical systems in nature, learn to apply mathematical tools to
construct quantum mechanical systems. Use the concepts of statistical mechanics to describe
fundamental particles in nature, different phenomenon and properties of physical systems.

CO4: Develop an ability to analyze and solve theoretical problems of physics.

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Course Content:

Module Pages
No. Description of Topic
No.
1 Classical Mechanics and Oscillations:
Constraints- Gradient, Divergence and Curl of a vector, Potential energy function F = - 6
grad V, Equipotential surfaces and meaning of gradient. Conservative and non-
conservative forces, Conservation laws of energy & momentum; Concept of Central
forces, Kepler’s law, Holonomic and Non-Holonomic Constraints, Degrees of Freedom,
Generalized Coordinates and Momentum, Cyclic coordinate, Lagrange’s equation of
motion, application of Lagrange’s equation.

Damped harmonic motion – over-damped, critically damped and lightly damped

oscillators; energy decay in a damped harmonic oscillator, logarithmic decrement,
Forced oscillations and resonance, amplitude resonance and velocity resonance, quality
factor, sharpness of resonance, power absorbed by oscillator.

2 Optics:

Huygens’ principle, superposition of waves and interference of light by wavefront 8

splitting and amplitude splitting; Young’s double slit experiment, Newton’s rings,
Fraunhofer diffraction from a single slit and double slit (derivation of intensity
expressions are not required), Diffraction gratings, resolving power and limit of
resolution of a diffraction grating, Rayleigh criterion of resolution.
Spontaneous and Stimulated emission, Einstein’s theory of A and B coefficients;
amplification of light by population inversion, LASER, Properties of LASER beams:
mono-chromaticity, coherence, directionality and brightness, applications of lasers,
different methods of pumping, different parts of a LASER system, description and
energy level diagram of Ruby LASER and He-Ne LASER.

Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory:

3 15
Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, dielectrics and conducting medium, concept of bound
charges due to electric polarization in dielectric medium, electric displacement current
and displacement vector, equation of continuity from Maxwell’s equations, Poynting’s
theorem, Poynting vector, flow of energy in an electromagnetic field, electromagnetic
wave equation in vacuum, dielectric and conducting medium, skin depth, transverse
nature of plane electromagnetic waves in vacuum, relation between electric and
magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave.

4 Electronic Materials and Semiconductors:

Classical free electron theory of metals, quantum free electron theory (Sommerfield 17
theory) and band theory of solids, assumptions, limitations/failures of classical free
electron theory and quantum free electron theory, electrical conductivity of a metal from
classical and quantum free electron theory, density of states in 1, 2 and 3 dimensions,
Fermi level, Bloch’s theorem for particles in a periodic potential, Kronig-Penney model
and origin of energy bands [no derivation], metals, semiconductors, and insulators,
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, carrier generation and recombination, carrier
transport: diffusion and drift, p –n junction diode.

5 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics for Engineers: 21

Introduction to quantum mechanics, wave nature of particles, de-Broglie hypothesis,
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, concept of wave functions, mathematical properties
of wave functions, Born interpretation, probability density, normalization condition,
concept of operator, commutator of operators, Linear and Hermitian operator,
eigenfunction, eigenvalue, eigen value equation, expectation values, time-dependent
and time-independent Schrödinger equation, orthogonality condition.

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 Applications of Schrödinger equation: One-dimensional problems - particle in one
dimensional potential box, step potential, concept of tunnel effect, qualitative summary
of linear harmonic oscillator; Three-dimensional problems - particle in three
dimensional potential box, hydrogen atom problem (qualitative discussion).

Statistical Mechanics:
6 24
Concept of Microstates and Macrostates, statistical distributions functions (three
different kinds- Maxwell Boltzmann, Fermi-Dirac, Bose Einstein), Comparison of these
three statistical distribution functions, mention the form of the functions and graphical
explanations of them, concept of Fermions and Bosons, mention the importance of
statistical mechanics in perspective of thermodynamics, concept of thermodynamical
probability.

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Learning Resources:

Suggested Text Book:

1. Engineering Physics by Sujay Kumar Bhattacharya, Mc Graw Hill Education

Reference Books:
1. Theory and problems of Theoretical Mechanics by Murray R. Spiegel SI (Metric) edition
2. Advanced Acoustics by Dr. D. P. Raychaudhuri, The new book stall, Revised Ninth Edition, 2009
3. A textbook on Optics, B. Ghosh and K. G. Majumder, Sreedhar Publishers, fifth edition
4. Introduction to Electrodynamics by David J. Griffiths 3rd Edition
5. Solid State Physics by S O Pillai (Published by New Age International Publishers)
6. Concepts of Modern Physics (Sixth Edition) by Arthur Beiser (Published by McGraw-Hill)

CO-PO Mapping:

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

PO

PCC-EC302.1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302.2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302.3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302.4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

PCC-EC302* 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3

1: Low (Slight) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

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This study material is only for use of IEM & UEM students.

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 Module-1 : Classical Mechanics and Oscillations:

Lagrangian formulation: The Lagrangian L is defined as L = T − V, where T is the kinetic energy

and V the potential energy of the system in question. The potential energy of a system depends on the
coordinates of all its particles; written as V = V (x1, y1, z1, x2, y2, z2, . . .). The kinetic energy generally
depends on the velocities, which, using the notation vx = dx/dt = ẋ, may be written T = T (ẋ1, ẏ1, ż1, ẋ2,
ẏ2, ż2, . . .). Thus, a dynamic problem has six dynamic variables for each particle, that is, x, y, z and ẋ,
ẏ, ż and the Lagrangian depends on all 6N variables if there are N particles.

The 6N related dynamic variables may be reduced to a smaller number of independent generalized
coordinates (q1, q2, . . . qi, . . .) and generalized velocities (q̇1, q̇2, . . . q̇i, . . .), just as, for the rigid body,
3N coordinates were reduced to six independent generalized coordinates (each of which has an
associated velocity). The Lagrange’s equation for conservative system is expressed as a function of all
the qi and q̇i,
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂q̇ ∂q

where the notation ∂L/∂qi means differentiate L with respect to qi only, holding all other variables
constant.

Central force related equations: The path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., the
particle moves in a plane. Choose this plane to be the x,y plane and the coordinates describing the
position of the particle at any time t to be polar coordinates (r, θ).

Using can be written entirely in terms of r

Let,

Using

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Questions:

1. Analyze the equation of motion with the help of Lagrangian when the point of suspension of a
simple pendulum is attached to a moving lift which falls with an acceleration f. [BL4] (10)

[Hint: Suppose that the point of suspension of a simple pendulum is not fixed but is attached
to a moving lift which falls with acceleration f.
Here coordinates of the center of mass of the system after time t are:
y = ft + l cosθ
x = l sinθ
Formulate the Lagrangian and construct the Lagrange’s equation of motion.]

2. A particle moves in a central orbit described by r = exp(−aθ). a is a constant. Evaluate the

nature of the force. [BL5] (5)

[Hint: = e = u. Use the equation of motion in central force +u = to find out the
form of the force.]

3. A cartesian coordinate system with axes x, y, z is rotating relative to an inertial frame with
constant angular velocity ω about the z-axis. A particle of mass m moves under a force whose
potential is V(x,y,z). Set up the Lagrange’s equations of motion in the cartesian coordinate
system. Show that their equations are the same as those for a particle in a fixed coordinate
system acted on by the force -∇⃗V and a force derivable from a velocity-dependent potential U.
Find U. [BL6] (10)

[Hint: Let the inertial frame has the same origin as the rotating frame and axes x , y , z .
Denote the velocities of the particle in two frames by v⃗ and v⃗. The relation is: v⃗ = v⃗ + ω⃗ × r⃗.
Write the form of v in terms of x, y, z and ẋ , ẏ , ż . Construct the Lagrangian using the form
v and compare with form of Lagrangian in presence of fixed coordinate system.]

4. A conical buoy floats with its axis vertical and its apex points downwards in a big vessel
containing water. If the weight of the buoy is 300lbs and 1 cu.ft of water weights 64 lbs, find
the time period of vertical oscillations, if the diameter of the base is 4 ft and the height of the
cone is 5 ft. [BL-4] (5)

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 [ Hints: From the concept of Archimrdes’ principle deduce the equation of motion and hence
calculate the time period.]

5. In one dimensional motion of a mass of 10 gm, it is acted on by a restoring force of 10

dyne/cm and a resisting force 2 dyne-sec/cm. (i) Find whether the motion is aperiodic or
oscillatory, (ii) the value of the resisting force which will make the motion critically damped,
(iii) the value of the mass for which the given forces will make the motion critically damped,
(iv) suppose that, the mass is given an initial impulse of 20 gm-cm/sec, while at rest, obtain an
expression for the displacement x at a time t. [BL- 5] (5)

Module – 2: Optics:

Interference of Light

Definition
The phenomenon in which alternate bright and dark bands or fringes are produced as a result of
superposition of two monochromatic light waves of same wavelength, equal or nearly equal amplitude
and having constant phase difference proceeding in the same direction is called interference of light.

Conditions for sustained interference

(i) The light sources must be coherent. The light waves must have constant phase difference.
(ii) The two sources must emit monochromatic light waves. The amplitude should also be
equal or nearly equal.
(iii) The two sources should be very narrow.
(iv) The sources must lie very close to each other.

Intensity of the light at the point of superposition

I  a12  a 22  2a1a 2 cos 
Where a1 and a2 are the amplitudes of the light waves and δ is the phase difference between them.

Conditions for bright and dark fringes path difference between the light waves of wavelength λ

In terms of phase difference

Bright fringes: cosδ = 1 or δ = 2nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.

Dark fringes: cosδ = -1 or δ = (2n+1)π where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.

In terms of path difference

2 
Bright fringes:    2n or   2n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.
 2
2 
Dark fringes:    (2n  1)  or   (2n  1) where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…..etc.
 2

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Position of nth bright fringe (xn) and nth dark fringe (xn) on the screen

Distance between the slits = d, Distance of the screen and the slits = D
Wavelength of the light waves = λ

nD D 
For bright fringe x n  and for Dark fringe xn  (2n  1)
d d 2

Fringe width (β) of bright and dark fringes

D
 Therefore fringe widths of bright and dark fringes are equal.
d

Newton’s Rings

Radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens = R, Wavelength of light = λ and Refractive index of
the thin film = μ

Rn 4nR
Radius of the nth dark ring (rn) rn  Diameter of the nth dark ring (Dn) D n 
 

(2n  1)R
Radius of the nth bright ring (rn) rn 
2

2(2n  1)R
Diameter of the nth bright ring D n 


Relation between the radius of curvature (R) of the palno-convex lens and the wavelength of the
light

(D 2m  n  D2n )
R
4m

Diffraction of Light

Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the corner of a sharp obstacle. Diffraction of
light is noticeable when the dimension of obstacle is close to the wavelength of light. Light enters into
the geometrical shadow region deviating from linear path.

Single slit diffraction

sin 2  a sin 
Intensity I  Io where Io = (CAa)2 and  
 2

a – Slit width, λ – wavelength of the light, θ – angle of diffraction
Condition of minima: α = mπ where m = ±1, ±2, ±3…..
3 5
Condition of maxima:   tan  where α = 0, ± ,±
2 2
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Double slit diffraction
sin 2  a sin  d sin 
Intensity I  4I 0 cos 2  where Io = (CAa)2,   and  
 2
 
a – Slit width, d- separation between the slits (d = a + b) ,λ – wavelength of the light and
θ – angle of diffraction.
Condition of diffraction minima: α = mπ where m = ±1, ±2, ±3…..
3 5
Condition of diffraction maxima:   tan  where α = 0, ± ,±
2 2

Condition of interference minima:   (2s  1) where s = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3….
2
Condition of interference maxima: β = pπ where p = 0, ±1,± 2, ±3,…..

Diffraction grating

Plane diffraction grating consists of a number of parallel and equidistant lines ruled on an optically
plane parallel glass plate by a fine diamond point. The number of such ruled lines per mm is of the
order of 100. Each ruled line behaves as an opaque line while the transparent portion between two
consecutive ruled lines behaves as a slit. If a be the width of a clear space and b be the width of a ruled
line, then the distance (a+b) is called grating element or grating constant. In optics, a diffraction
grating is an optical component with a periodic structure that diffracts light into several beams
travelling in different directions. The directions or diffraction angles of these beams depend on the
incident angle to the diffraction grating, the spacing or distance between adjacent diffracting elements
(e.g., parallel slits for a transmission grating) on the grating, and the wavelength of the incident light.
The grating acts as a dispersive element. Because of this, diffraction gratings are commonly used in
spectrometers.
sin 2  sin 2 N
Intensity I  I0
 2 sin 2 
a sin  d sin 
where N = no of slits, Io = (CAa)2,   and  
 
Grating equation: (a  b) sin   n where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3….
d d sin   n
Angular dispersive power of a Grating -
d d
d cos  n
d
d n

d d cos 
d sin   n
Maximum number of Grating spectra (nmax)
(a  b) sin   n
(a  b) sin 
n

(a  b)
n max 

Resolving power of a Grating   d sin N
 nN 
d d 

LASER spectroscopy
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The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Absorption and Emission of Radiation

Absorption
2 E2
Photon hν12
hν1
1 E1
The atom will absorb the photon and will go to the upper excited state E2. This phenomenon is called
Absorption.
The atom cannot be stay in the excited state forever. It can stay there for a certain period of time
which is known as the lifetime of the excited state.

Emission
The atom will come down to the lower excited state E1 and release the amount of energy
hν12 = E2 – E1

Population Inversion
• Let us consider N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in the lower energy state E1 and higher
energy state E2 respectively
• According to Boltzmann distribution, under thermal equilibrium
N2/N1 = e –(E2 – E1)/KT
At room temperature, most of the atoms remain in lower energy state E1.
Hence in this condition, stimulated emission is negligible due to fewer amounts of atoms
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 in level E2.
• To achieve sufficient stimulated emission more atoms are required in level 2, ie, N2 > N1. This
is known as population inversion.
Population inversion can be attained by optical pumping.

Einstein’s A, B Coefficients
dN dN
Rate of absorption:  1  B12 N1u  Rate of spontaneous emission:  2  A 21 N 2
dt dt
dN 2
Rate of stimulated emission:   B21 N 2 u 
dt
Here A21, B12, B21 are known as Einstein’s A, B coefficients.

The radiation energy density (uυ)

8h 3 1
u  h
c3
e kT
1
Relation between Einstein’s A, B Coefficients

A 21 8h 3
 B12  B21
B21 c3

Active medium
is placed
between a pair
of mirror .
Such a closed
system is
called Optical
Resonator

mc
Frequency of cavity modes:  m  L – Length of the cavity, μ – refractive index of the active
2L
medium.
Here m = 1, 2, 3,……… represents cavity modes of different frequencies.

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 c
The separation between frequencies of two consecutive modes is:    m 1   m 
2L
The Quality factor Q of the cavity
Maximum energy stored per cycle in the mode
Q  2
Energy dissipated per cycle in the mode

It can also be expressed as Q  where Δω is the linewidth.


Problems

1. (i) In the context of Young's Double Slit Experiment, consider a scenario where the distance
between the slits is increased. Explain how this change affects the resulting interference
pattern on the screen. Provide a detailed analysis of the impact on fringe separation, fringe
visibility, and overall pattern characteristics. Additionally, discuss the underlying wave nature
of light and the key factors influencing the observed pattern. Finally, evaluate the practical
implications of these changes in the experiment on the precision and accuracy of
measurements. Justify your evaluation based on the fundamental principles of wave optics and
the mathematical expressions governing interference in the double-slit configuration. [BL 5]
(5)
[Hint: This question requires students to recall and understand the basic principles of Young's
Double Slit Experiment, apply their knowledge to predict the effects of changing parameters,
analyze the consequences in terms of interference patterns, and ultimately evaluate the broader
implications of such changes on experimental outcomes.]

(ii) A film of oil (refractive index – 1.7) is formed between a plane glass plate and an equi-
convex lens (refractive index of both may be taken as 1.5). The focal length of the lens is 1 m.
Estimate the radius of 10th dark ring when light of wavelength 600 nm falls normally on the
combination [BL 5] (5)
m R
[Hints: Use rm2  . Here m = 10, λ = 600 × 10-9 m, n = 1.7. Find R from
n
1 1 1
 (n  1)(  ) . Therefore, R1 = R2 = R = f = 1 m. Thus rm = 1.879 mm]
f R1 R 2

2. (i) An oil film (refractive index = 1.2) on water (refractive index = 1.33) is viewed directly
from above with light of wavelength 600 nm in air. The film appears circular and has a centre
thickness of 1 μm decreasing to zero thickness at the edge. Evaluate whether the edge will
appear bright or dark. How many dark rings will appear in the fringe pattern? [BL5] (5)

[Hints: The incident rays suffer identical phase changes at the upper and lower surface of the
film. So the condition for the mth bright fringe at the centre is
2nD
2.n.d = mλ or m  . At the edge optical path difference = 0. So it appears bright ( m =

0).]

(ii) Lights of wavelengths 580 nm and 450 nm are used in Young’s double slit experiment.
14 | P a g e
 Determine the least distance from the central fringe where the bright fringe of the two
wavelengths coincides. The separation between the slits (d) is 3 mm and the distance of the
screen from the slits is 1 m. [BL5] (5)

[Hints: Consider nth bright fringe of wavelength 580 nm coincides with the (n+1)th bright
n D
fringe of wavelength 450 nm. Position of the nth bright fringe x n  .
d
Calculate the value of n. Then determine the least distance from the central maxima using the
n D
expression x n  ]
d

3. (i) Light of wavelength 500 nm and 520 nm falls on a grating having 5000 lines/cm. If a lens
of focal length 2 metres is used to form spectra on a screen, evaluate the distance between the
lines (a) in the first order, (b) in the third order. [BL5] (5)
1 m1 m 2
[Hints: a  b  , sin 1  , sin 2 
5000 (a  b) (a  b)

Angular separation   2  1

Hence, the linear separation of the lines will be y  f ]

(ii) A star is viewed by eye at night. How large is the image formed on the retina? Assume
diameter of the pupil is 5 mm and distance between the pupil and the retina is 3 cm. Given λ =
550 nm. [BL5] (5)

1.22
[Hints: 2  2  if L is distance between the pupil and the retina and D is diameter of
d
the pupil, Then the diameter of the image of the star on the retina is d s  2 L ]

4. (i) Consider a case of double slit diffraction, where slit width is 0.0088 cm, separation between
the slits is 0.07cm and wavelength of light used 632.8 nm. Find the number of interference
minima occurring between the two diffraction minima on either side of the central maxima.
[BL4] (5)

[Hints: Condition for diffraction minima: a sin   m , where m =1


Condition for interference minima: d sin   (2n  1) ]
2

(ii) A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm is incident normally on a narrow slit of
width 0.2 mm. The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is observed on screen which is placed at the
focal plane of a convex lens (placed very closed to the slit) of focal length 20 cm. Calculate the
distance between the first two maxima on the screen. [BL4] (5)

[Hints: In single diffraction, condition for first order maxima is a sin 1  1.43
condition for second order maxima is a sin 2  2.46 .Calculate θ and θ using these
conditions. The distance between first two maxima = (2  1 )f where f is the focal
15 | P a g e
 length of convex lens.]

5. (i) Using the principles of quantum mechanics and the characteristics of a Helium-Neon (He-
Ne) laser, derive an expression for the population inversion necessary for laser action. Assume
a four-level laser system and consider relevant energy levels. Include a step-by-step
explanation of the mathematical expressions involved. [BL5[[5]
[ Hint:
Begin by describing the energy levels involved in the He-Ne laser system.
Apply the principles of statistical mechanics to establish the population distribution among
these energy levels.
Utilize the rate equations to express the rate of change of population in each energy level.
Equate the rates of change to zero to find the conditions for population inversion.
Finally, derive an expression for the population inversion in terms of relevant parameters such
as spontaneous and stimulated emission rates, and pumping rate.
This question requires a deep understanding of quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and
the specific characteristics of a He-Ne laser. ]

(ii) A 20 mW He-Ne laser has efficiency of 2 %. Consider that all input energy is utilized to
pump the atoms from the ground state to an excited state which is 15 eV above the ground
state. Determine how many atoms are pumped to the excited state in one second. [BL6] [5]

[Hints: Power input = Power output/Efficiency. Number of atoms excited/second = Input

power/energy difference between ground and excited states]

Module – 3 : Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory:

General form of Maxwell’s equations:

ρ
∇⃗. E⃗ =
ϵ
∇⃗. B⃗ = 0
∂B⃗
∇⃗ × E⃗ = −
∂t
∂E⃗
∇⃗ × B⃗ = μ ⃗J + μ ϵ
∂t

Maxwell’s equations in conductor: charge density ρ = 0, B⃗ = μH⃗

∇⃗. E⃗ = 0
∇⃗. H⃗ = 0
∂H⃗
∇⃗ × E⃗ = −μ
∂t

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 ∂E⃗
∇⃗ × H⃗ = σE⃗ + ϵ
∂t

Conduction current density: ⃗J = σE⃗ ≡ J⃗

⃗ ⃗
Displacement current density: J ⃗ = ϵ = Kϵ

⃗. ⃗ ∗
Poynting’s vector in free space: S⃗ = E⃗ × H⃗ = E⃗ × k⃗ × E⃗ = k⃗ = k⃗

Questions:

1. Investigate the formation of electromagnetic wave within a capacitor and inductor in an

electrical circuit having AC voltage source. [BL4] (5)

[Hint: Draw the circuit with the capacitor and inductor. Using the concept of Maxwell’s
equations, indicate the formation of electric field and magnetic field within the capacitor and
inductor.]

2. Investigate that for good conductor skin depth δ = , where λ is the wavelength of
electromagnetic waves in the conductor and show that for an electromagnetic wave incident on
a good conductor the electric vector reduces to about 1% at a depth of 0.73 𝜆 . [BL4] (5+5)

[Hint: Suppose the wave is incident normally on the surface of the conductor along z-axis. Then
the electric field inside the conductor is given by

𝐸⃗ (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸⃗𝑒 .𝑒 ( )

𝜖𝜇 𝜎
𝛼=𝜔 1+ +1
2 𝜔𝜖

𝜖𝜇 𝜎
𝛽=𝜔 1+ −1
2 𝜔𝜖
For good conductor ≫ 1. Using this condition find 𝛼 and 𝛽. Then find the skin depth using the
form of 𝛽.]

3. Consider a parallel plate capacitor immersed in sea water. The charge on the capacitor is varied
according to , where = 4 108 Hz. At this frequency sea water has
permittivity = 81 , permeability and resistivity = 0.23 -m. Find out the ratio of
the amplitudes of the conduction and the displacement current densities between the plates.
[BL5](5)

[Hint: Using the form of the variation of charge on the capacitor plate, calculate the electric field
as a function of time. Using the form of the electric field obtained calculate the conduction current
density and displacement current density.]

4. The intensity of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface is about 1380 W/m2. Evaluate the strength
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 of electric and magnetic field of the incoming sunlight. [BL5] (5+5)

[Hint: Intensity of wave 𝐼 = 〈𝑆〉 = 𝑆 , where S is the Poynting vector. Show that 𝐼 =
〈𝑆〉 = 𝜖 𝐸 𝑐 in free space. Using this form find out electric field and magnetic field.]

5.Formulate the Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetic wave in ionized gases and find out the
refractive index of the medium. Explain how refractive index of the medium helps in propagation of
electromagnetic wave in ionosphere. [BL6] (10)

[Hint: Consider a dilute medium of ionized gases such as ionosphere. The motion of positive ions
may be ignored as they are massive as compared to the electrons. Also, the damping of the motion of
free electrons due to collisions is negligible here. Use the non-relativistic equation of motion of an
electron of mass m and charge e under the action of the incident electromagnetic field. Finding out the
velocity of the electron in terms of electric field (E), frequency of wave (𝜔), mass of electron (m) and
charge of electron (e). Using the form of the velocity find the current density and use that form in
Maxwell’s equation. Then formulating the wave equation find the complex form of the wave number
(k).]

Module – 4: Electronic Materials and Semiconductors :

Introduction:

Solid materials can be classified into three types based on the conductivity of heat and electricity.
They are;

1. Conductors (Example: Metals – Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold) 2. Semiconductors

(Example : Germanium, Silicon) 3. Insulators ( Example: Wood, Mica, Glass)

In solids, electrons in the outermost orbit of atoms are called valance electrons, which determine the
properties of the materials. The electron theory is applicable to all solids (both metals and non-
metals). This theory explains the electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids.

There are three stages for the development of electron theory of solids; namely, Classical free
electron theory, Quantum free electron theory and Zone theory.

1. A classical free electron theory is a macroscopic theory proposed by Paul Drude in 1900. After
the discovery of electron by J. J. Thomson, this theory was elaborated by Lorentz in 1909.
Hence this theory is also known as Drude & Lorentz theory. According to this theory metals
contain free electrons which are responsible for the electrical conductivity in metals and obeys
the laws of classical mechanics (Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution).

2. Quantum free electron theory is a microscopic theory developed by Sommerfeld in 1928.

According to this theory, the free electrons move within a constant potential and obeys
quantum laws (Fermi-Dirac statistics).

3. Zone theory was developed by Bloch in 1928. According to this theory, free electrons move in
periodic potential provided by lattice. This theory is also known as band theory of solids.
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Assumptions of classical free-electron theory:

1. All metals contain large number of free electrons which move freely through the positive ionic core
of the metals. Since these free electrons causes conduction in metal under the application of electrical
field, they are called as conduction electrons.

2. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules; the laws of classical kinetic theory of
gases can be applied to them. Therefore these electrons have mean free path (λ), mean collision time
(τ), average speed (v).

3. In the absence of the electric field, the kinetic energy associated with an electron at a
temperature T is given by ½ mvth2 = 3/2 kT = ½ m c 2 ,where vth is the thermal velocity of the electron
and which is equal to root mean square velocity c.

4. Since the motion of the electrons is random, the net current is zero in the absence of electric field.
But when an electric field is applied, current is produced due to the drift velocity of the electrons.

5.The electric field (or Potential) due to positive ionic cores is considered to be uniform throughout
the metal and hence neglected.

The force of attraction between the electrons & lattice ions and the force of repulsion between the
electrons themselves are considered to be negligible.
Drift velocity, Mean free path, Relaxation time, Conductivity, and Resistivity.

1) Drift velocity (Vd): It is the average velocity acquired by the electrons in a direction opposite to the
direction of the applied electric field. Drift velocity is given by
𝑒𝐸𝜏
𝑣 =
𝑚
Where E is the strength of the applied electric field and τ is the relaxation time.
2) Mean Free Path (λ): The average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between two successive
collisions with lattice ions or another free electrons is termed as mean free path of the free electrons.
i.e., 𝜆 = 𝑣𝜏 where τc is the mean collision time & v = vdrift +vthermal
3) Relaxation Time (τ) : When an electric field is applied, the free electrons drift slowly in a
direction opposite to that of the applied electric field with an average velocity. If the electric field
is turned off the drift velocity decreases. Relaxation time is the time during which the average
velocity decreases to 1/e times the value of velocity when the electric field is turned off. The
relaxation time is a measure of the rate at which relaxation takes place.
𝑣=𝑣 𝑒
4) Electrical conductivity in metals : Electrical conductivity of a metal is the ability of the metal to
allow electrons to flow through it. The expression for electrical conductivity of a metal is given by;
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
Where n is the number of free electrons/unit volume & τ is the relaxation time.
Electrical resistivity: It is the property of the metal and defined as the reciprocal of electrical
conductivity.
1 𝑚
𝜌= =
𝜎 𝑛𝑒 𝜏
Electrical resistivity occurs due to the scattering of conduction electrons at the scattering centres such
as ion cores and impurities within the crystal.
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Success of Classical Free Electron Theory:
1. It verifies Ohm’s law i.e., V = IR, 2. It is used to derive Wiedemann – Franz law. (i.e., the
relation between electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity), 3. It explains Electrical and
Thermal conductivity of metals.,4. It explains optical properties of metals.
Failures/Drawbacks of Classical Free-Electron Theory:
1. It could not explain the temperature dependence of resistivity for all solids. 2. The theoretical and
experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific heat are not matched. According to this
theory the value of electronic specific heat is equal to (3/2)R while the actual value is about 100 times
lower to this value. 3. Variation in mean free path value. 4. Electrical conductivity of semiconductor
or insulators couldn’t be explained using this model. 5. Though K/σT is a constant that is equal to the
Lorenz number (Wiedemann – Franz Law). But the theoretical value of Lorenz value is different than
the experimental value. 6. Classical theory states that all the free electrons will absorb energy, but
quantum theory states only few electrons will absorb energy. 7. This theory cannot explain the
Compton, photo-electric effect, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc.
Quantum Free Electron Theory (Sommerfeld Theory):
To overcome the drawbacks of classical free electron theory, Sommerfeld proposed quantum free
electron theory. He treated electron as a quantum particle. He retains the vital features of classical free
electron theory and included the Fermi-Dirac statistics.
Zone Theory/Band theory: The quantum free electron theory (Sommerfield model) explains the
properties like thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity and specific heat of most of the metals.
But, it fails to explain why some solids are conductors, some are insulators and others are
semiconductors. A solution to this problem was given by band theory of solids and is called zone
theory.
Postulates of Zone Theory: 1. According to band theory, potential energy of electron within the
crystal is periodic due to periodicity of the crystal i.e., free electrons move inside periodic lattice field.
2 The potential energy of the solid varies periodically with the periodicity of space lattice, which is
nothing but interatomic spacing.
BLOCH'S THEOREM FOR PARTICLES IN A PERIODIC POTENTIAL: The motion of
electron inside the lattice is not free as expected, but the electron experiences a periodic potential
variation. The potential energy of the electron is maximum between adjacent ions and gradually
decrease as the electron moves towards ions as shown in fig.

Fig. 1: Series of equidistant ions in 1-D periodic potential and periodic potential due to the on
cores.
Schrodinger equation for an electron in 1-D periodic potential is given by
𝑑 𝜓(𝑥) 2𝑚
= [E − 𝑉 (𝑥 )]𝜓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
1-d periodic potential: V(x+a) = V(x), where “a” is the periodicity of the lattice. Other symbols have
their usual meaning.
General solution of the Schrodinger the Schrodinger equation is
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑢 (𝑥)𝑒 ±
The wavefunction 𝜓(𝑥 ) is modulated by a periodic function named as Bloch function 𝑢 (𝑥) and
expressed as 𝑢 (𝑥) = 𝑢 (𝑥 + 𝑎). It has the periodicity of the lattice.
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 𝜓(𝑥 + 𝑎) = 𝑢 (𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑒 ± ( )
= 𝜓(𝑥 )𝑒 ±

Figure: Plot of energy vs. wavevector in a 1-D periodic lattice.

Bands are formed due to the periodicity of the lattice. Electrons in a periodic lattice, energy curve is
not a continuous parabola and discontinuity occur at 𝑘 = . The zone between + and − is called
first Brillouin zone and second Brillouin zone has two parts: between + and + and between −
and − . There are allowed energy bands and forbidden energy bands as shown in the figure.

Questions:

Q1.An electron in a metal is subjected to an external magnetic field of strength B applied

perpendicular to its motion. The electron has an initial velocity v0 and is located at a position x0 from
the origin. Using the classical free electron theory, derive an expression for the trajectory of the
electron as a function of time in the presence of the magnetic field. Consider the effects of the Lorentz
force on the electron's motion.
[ Hint:
1. Start by writing the equation of motion for the electron in the presence of the magnetic field.
2. Apply the Lorentz force equation and consider the electron's initial conditions.
3. Solve the resulting differential equation to obtain the expression for the electron's trajectory.
4. Discuss any interesting physical implications or observations arising from your derived expression.
This question requires the application of knowledge related to classical free electron theory, Lorentz
force, differential equations, and the ability to derive and analyze the trajectory of an electron in a
magnetic field.] [BL 4] (10)

Q2. Consider a metal slab and use Drude’s model for that slab. Suppose the average momentum of
free electrons at a time t is P(t) and at a later time t+dt is P(t + dt). You have ion cores as scattering
centres within the metal. You apply an external force f(t). When time dt is less than average
relaxation time τ, estimate the rate of change of momentum. Comment on the physical
significance of the results obtained. [Hints: Use kinetic theory of gases - apply kinetic theory of
gases to the free electrons within the metals, Drude’s Model, weakly interacting/noninteracting
free electrons, gas of electrons inside a box, free electrons collide with the ion cores , mean
collison time τc, dt less than τc - probability of collision in time dt is dt/τc, tau ~10 -14 s, To
calculate average momentum, it needs to be weighted by probability of not having a collision,
use Newton’s laws of motion for calculating the change of mometum due to f(t) and calculate
21 | P a g e
dP/dt.][BL 5] (5)

Q3.Apply the principles of Quantum Free Electron Theory to determine the electrical conductivity of
a metal at absolute zero temperature. Consider a metal with a Fermi energy of 5 eV and a density of
states of 3 states/eV∙atom. The metal has a conductivity electron concentration of 2.5 × 10 28
electrons/m3. Given the elementary charge (e) as 1.6 × 10-19 C, the reduced Planck constant (ħ) as 1.05
× 10-34 J∙s, and the electron mass (me) as 9.11 × 10-31 kg.

[ Hint:
Begin by calculating the Fermi wave vector (kF) using the relation kF = (3π2n)1/3, where 'n' is the
electron concentration.
Determine the Fermi velocity (vF) using the formula vF = ħkF/me.
Apply the Drude model expression for electrical conductivity (σ) at absolute zero: σ = ne2τ/(me),
where 'n' is the electron concentration, 'e' is the elementary charge, 'τ' is the relaxation time, and 'm e' is
the electron mass.
Calculate the relaxation time 'τ' using the mean free path (l) and Fermi velocity: τ = l/vF. The mean
free path can be approximated as l = vFτ, and it is related to the density of states (DOS) as l =
ħ/(2meDOS).] This question involves applying multiple concepts related to Quantum Free Electron
Theory, Fermi energy, Fermi velocity, mean free path, and Drude model expression for electrical
conductivity. Students are required to perform calculations and manipulate equations to arrive at a
comprehensive solution.] [BL6](10)

Q4. Consider a thin metal film and you apply a DC electric field along the x-direction. Resistance of
the film is 1 Ohm. Therefore, you get a constant current 1 A. After sometime, you get an estimate of
the velocity of the electrons. Will you find the velocity to be constant/it will decrease/increase with
time? In case you find out that the average velocity of the electrons is constant, does it contradict with
the acceleration to be obtained due to the application of the electric field? Analyse in detail. Consider
that the time dt is less the relaxation time τ. [Hints: Start with Drude’s model, Force on the
electron = -eE, calculate the rate of change of momentum using Newton’s laws of motion and
make the rate of change of momentum equal to zero at the equilibrium.][BL4] (10)

Q5. Consider a thin metal film(in the XY plane, length along x direction and breadth along y
direction) and you apply a DC electric field E along the x-direction and a magnetic field B along the
perpendicular to the film direction. Constitute the expression for the total electric field generated,
analyse each of the terms obtained in the expression for the generated electric field. Evaluate the
transverse resistivity and longitudinal resistivity. Is there a connection with the resistivity obtained
from Drude’s model? Comment on that as well. [Hints: Start with Drude’s model, drift motion
and voltage drop along the direction of the current, longitudinal voltage, additional voltage
perpendicular to the flow of current across the film plane, use Lorentz force, at equilibrium
dp/dt=0 ][BL6](10)

Q6. Consider an electron inside a metal. The electron is moving in a periodic Bloch potential. A weak
external force is applied on it. Plot velocity as a function of wavevector k. Also plot displacement as a
function of time. Analyse the motion of the electron. [Hints: Consider the group velocity vg, write
force equal to time variation of momentum quantum mechanically, plot energy-K diagram in
the first Brillouin Zone – consider the lowest band, express vg in terms of de/dk, understand
de/dk from the e-k diagram, and plot vg vs k, follow vg vs k diagram, integrate v (k) dt by
following vg vs k diagram and plot x vs t. Basically you are considering Bloch oscillation in the
energy band since the electron is under an weak applied force. ][BL6](10)

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 Module – 5 : Introduction to Quantum Mechanics for Engineers:

Quantum Mechanical Wave Functions and Operators.

In Quantum Mechanics we can associate a wavefunction 𝛹 with every particle. But a wave function
has to satisfy certain characteristics to qualify to be a Quantum Mechanical wave function. Similarly,
all observables in Quantum Mechanics (for example Energy, Momentum and Position) can be
represented as operators. An operator has to be Hermitian in order to qualify to be a Quantum
Mechanical Operator.

Following table shows different operators corresponding to different observables,

Observables Operator
momentum 𝜕
𝑝̂ = −𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝑥
Position 𝑥
Energy 𝜕
𝐸 = 𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝑡

 The commutative law does not generally hold for operators. In general, 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 𝐴
 It is convenient to define the quantity 𝐴, 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵 𝐴which is called
the commutator of 𝐴and 𝐵.
 Note that the order matters, so that, 𝐴, 𝐵 = − 𝐵, 𝐴 . If 𝐴and 𝐵 happen to commute,
then 𝐴, 𝐵 = 0, which is called the commutator of and . That is, for two physical
quantities to be simultaneously observable, their operator representations must commute.
 some useful rules for evaluating commutators,

 The non-commutivity of the position and the momentum operators (the inability to
simultaneously determine particles position and its momentum) is represented with the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which in mathematical form is expressed as:

 Expectation Values.
Any observable in quantum mechanics is represented by an operator (as mentioned earlier).
Evaluation of expectation values involve Quantum Mechanical Averaging of such operators to get
the average value of the corresponding observables. The expectation value 〈𝐴〉 in terms of the
wavefunction 𝛹 and corresponding operator 𝐴 is given by,

 Particle in a one dimensional infinite potential well.

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 A particle is subjected to a potential:
∞, x≤ 0
V(x) = 0 0<x<L
∞ x≥L
After solution of the corresponding Time-Independent Schr𝑜̈ dinger Equation the wave
function corresponding to the 𝑛 Eigen state 𝜓 (x) is of the form:

𝜓 (x) = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿

= 0, otherwise.

The corresponding Energy Eigen value is: 𝐸 = , where n is an integer.

Quantum Linear Harmonic Oscillator

The Quantum Linear Harmonic Oscillator like a Classical Harmonic Oscillator is subjected to a
potential V(x) = m𝜔 𝑥 . So, the corresponding Time Independent Schr𝑜̈ dinger Equation is:
[ + m𝜔 𝑥 ]ψ(x)=E ψ(x), ω being the angular frequency of oscillation.
Solving the second order differential equation the energy eigen values are: 𝐸 = (n + ) ℎ ω, where n is
an integer. The wave functions corresponding to the eigen states are products of a Special Function
known as Hermite Polynomial and a Gaussian Function.

Quantum-Mechanical Tunneling:

 Now we consider the situation where classically the particle does not have enough energy to
surmount the potential barrier, E <V0.
 Tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon when a particle is able to penetrate through a
potential energy barrier that is higher in energy than the particle’s kinetic energy.

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  The quantum mechanical result, however, is one of the most remarkable features of modern
physics, and there is ample experimental proof of its existence. There is a small, but finite,
probability that the particle can penetrate the barrier and even emerge on the other side.
 This amazing property of microscopic particles play important roles in explaining several
physical phenomena including radioactive decay. Additionally, the principle of tunneling leads
to the development of Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) which had a profound impact
on chemical, biological and material science research.
 Approximate tunneling probability≃ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ 2𝑚(𝑈 − 𝐸) ]
ℏ

Questions:

1. i) Considering the ground state of a linear harmonic oscillator, find the relation between the
expectation value of kinetic and potential energies. [BL4](5) [Hint: If calculated correctly the
average values of kinetic and potential energies should be equal]

ii) Calculate the probability of finding a particle in the classically forbidden region of a linear
harmonic oscillator for the state n=0? [BL 4] (5)
[Hint: The value of the incomplete Γ function ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑦 = 0.1394]
.
2. i) Evaluate whether the following states are eigen states of the momentum operator?
a) Eigen states of particle confined in a one dimensional potential well;
b) Ground state eigen function of a simple harmonic oscillator
c) Ground state eigen function of a hydrogen atom
d) Free particle eigen function
e) Eigen states of particle confined in a three dimensional potential well
Justify your answer through appropriate calculation. [BL 4] (5)
[Hint: Use the expression for momentum operator and act it on the specified eigen states]

ii) Consider a physical system which has a number of observables that are represented by the
following matrix:
5 0 0
𝐴= 0 1 2
0 2 1
𝐹𝑖𝑛d 𝑡he results of the measurement of the observables. [BL 5] (5)

[Hint: Evaluate the eigen values of the matrices].

3. A particle in the infinite square well has an initial wave function an even mixture of the ground and
first excited states : ψ(x,0) = A[𝜓 (x)+𝜓 (x)]
a) Normalize ψ(x, 0) (Hint: Use the orthogonality condition of the states).
ħ
b) Find ψ(x, t) and |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| [Hint: Let 𝜔 = ]
c) Compute 〈𝑥〉 and 〈𝑝〉. Notice that 〈𝑥〉 oscillates in time. Compute the amplitude of oscillation.
d) If one measures the energy of the particle, then what values are obtained? What is the
probability of getting each of them? [BL6] (10)

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4. (a) Consider two observables in quantum mechanics, represented by Hermitian operators A and B,
with corresponding commutation relation given by [A,B] = iℏC, where C is another Hermitian
operator. Assume that the eigenstates of A and B are known to form complete sets.
Given a specific set of eigenstates {|a1>, |a2>, …..} of A and {|b1>, |b2>, …..} of B, find the eigenstates
and corresponding eigenvalues of C. Express your answers in terms of the given eigenstates.
[Hint:
i. Start by expressing the commutation relation in terms of matrix elements.
ii. Use the completeness relation for the eigenstates of A and B to simplify the expressions.
iii. Utilize the fact that the eigenstates form a complete set to determine the matrix elements of C in
the basis of A or B.
iv. Diagonalize the resulting matrix to obtain the eigenvalues of C.
This question requires the application of knowledge related to commutation relations in quantum
mechanics, linear algebra, and the diagonalization of matrices.] [BL4]

(b) Using the above identity formulate that [𝑥 , 𝑝] = 𝑖ℏ𝑛𝑥 [BL5] (5+5)
Hint: [Apply the concept of commutator and using the knowledge of position and momentum
operator derive the above relation]

5. Quantum phenomena are often negligible in the “macroscopic” world. Show this numerically for
the following cases:

(a) The amplitude of the zero-point oscillation for a pendulum of length l = 1 m and mass m = 1 kg
(b) The tunneling probability for a marble of mass m = 5 g moving at a speed of 10 cm/sec against a
rigid obstacle of height H = 5 cm and width w = 1 cm.
(c) The diffraction of a tennis ball of mass m = 0.1 kg moving at a speed w = 0.5 m/sec by a window
of size 1 x 1.5 m2. [BL6] (10)

Hint: [(a) Apply the energy relation of the harmonic oscillator gives the average potential energy as
ℏ
< V >= or mω A = and calculate A from this.

(b) Calculate the tunneling probability using the relation ≃ exp [ 2m(mgh − mv ) ] and
ℏ
check its probability.
(c)Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the tennis ball first and using it calculate diffraction angles
in the horizontal and the vertical directions. ]

**********************************

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