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 Al-Tabbaa
Stegemann

Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and Remediation – Advances

Stabilisation/Solidification

Treatment and Remediation

Stabilisation/Solidification
in S/S for Waste and Contaminated Land contains the 39 papers,
summaries of the four keynote lectures and the seven State of
Practice reports presented at the international conference organised
by the EPSRC-funded network STARNET (Stabilisation/solidification
Treatment and Remediation
treatment and remediation). A wide range of topics relating to the Advances in S/S for Waste
stabilisation/solidification of waste and contaminated land are
addressed under the following themes:
and Contaminated Land
• Binders and technologies
• Testing, QA/QC and guidance documents
• Long-term performance and environmental impact
• Case studies
• Stabilisation of untreated materials
• Beyond conventional stabilisation/solidification
The conference was held on 12-13 April 2005 in Cambridge, UK.
Editors
Abir Al-Tabbaa
Julia A. Stegemann

Balkema
STABILISATION/SOLIDIFICATION TREATMENT AND REMEDIATION

ADVANCES IN S/S FOR WASTE AND CONTAMINATED LAND

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STABILISATION/SOLIDIFICATION
TREATMENT AND REMEDIATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, UNITED KINGDOM,
12–13 APRIL 2005

Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment
and Remediation
Advances in S/S for Waste and Contaminated Land

Edited by

Abir Al-Tabbaa
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Julia A. Stegemann
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University College London,
United Kingdom

A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS LEIDEN / LONDON / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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 Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and Remediation – Al-Tabbaa & Stegemann (eds)
© 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1537 460 X

Table of Contents

Preface ix

Conference organising and technical committee xi

Keynote lectures
The Landfill Directive and its implications for the remediation of contaminated soils 3
J.R. Gronow
Deep mixing – properties and applications 7
G. Holm
Stabilisation/solidification experience in France 11
P-Y. Klein & M.C. Magnié
Test methods, modelling, field verification and impact evaluation of stabilised waste disposal 15
H. van der Sloot, A. van Zomeren & R. Bleijerveld

Theme 1: Binders and technologies

Stabilisation/solidification of synthetic drill cuttings representing Ras Shukier oil field in Egypt 19
M.S. Al-Ansary & A. Al-Tabbaa
Effect of different binder systems on the stabilisation/solidification of metal finishing wastes 31
C.R. Cheeseman, G.D. Fowler & X. Zhou
Specifying cement – standards and nomenclature 39
C.A. Clear
An evaluation of pozzolanic lead immobilization mechanisms in firing range soils 45
D. Dermatas, X. Xu, X. Cao, G. Shen, N. Menounou, P. Arienti & J.S. Delaney
Chemical treatment of soft soils containing Cr(VI) with different clay minerals 57
Y. Hayashi, M. Mizota, A. Suzuki, Y. Kitazono & H. Harada
Applications of rejected fly ash in stabilization and solidification processes 63
C.S. Poon, X.C. Qiao & C. Cheeseman
Remediation of soils contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons using quicklime mixing 69
V. Schifano, C.L. MacLeod, A.W.L. Dudeney & R. Dudeney
A new cement system for waste immobilisation – calcium sulfoaluminate cement system 79
Q. Zhou, N.B. Milestone & M. Hayes

Theme 2: Testing, QA/QC and guidance documents

UK guidance on stabilisation/solidification for the treatment of contaminated soil 89
B.D. Bone, L.H. Barnard & C.D. Hills

The Rietveld method as a tool for assessing heavy-metal immobilization in 97

S/S treatment investigations
D. Dermatas & M. Chrysochoou

v
Modelling in support of setting the waste acceptance criteria for monolithic waste 107
D.H. Hall, D. Drury & J.R. Gronow

A review of scale-up factors potentially affecting the long-term performance 117

of s/s-treated materials
D. Johnson

Reduction in leaching of hazardous substances from coal ash by addition of solidification agent 125
A. Sato & S. Nishimoto

Theme 3: Long-term performance and environmental impact

Performance assessment of stabilised/solidified waste-forms: initial results from 133
site characterisation, sampling and testing
A. Antemir, C.D. Hills, P.J. Carey, J. Spear, K. Gardner, D.I. Boardman & C.D.F. Rogers

Characterisation of full-scale historic inactive cement-based intermediate level nuclear wasteforms 139
R.J. Caldwell, S. Rawlinson, E.J. Butcher & I.H. Godfrey

Accelerated ageing of a stabilised/solidified contaminated soil at elevated temperatures 149

B. Chitambira, A. Al-Tabbaa, A.S.R. Perera & X.D. Yu

The technical sustainability of in-situ stabilisation/solidification 159

M.J. Harbottle, A. Al-Tabbaa & C.W. Evans

Chromium (Cr3
) leachability from monolithic solids under modified semi-dynamic 171
leaching conditions
D.H. Moon & D. Dermatas

The role of accelerated carbonation in the accelerated ageing of stabilised/solidified waste forms 181
A.S.R. Perera & A. Al-Tabbaa

Theme 4: Case studies

The development and operation of the BNFL Magnox encapsulation plant 195
N.J. Bowmer, I.H. Godfrey & E.J. Butcher

In-situ soil mixing treatment of contaminated soils at Sir John Rogerson’s Quay, Dublin 199
C.W. Evans

Stabilisation/solidification of manufactured gas plant wastes: Part 1 – treatability study 205

M.A. Fleri, G.T. Whetstone & J.P. Bauman
Stabilisation/solidification of manufactured gas plant wastes: Part 2 – pilot test study 215
M.A. Fleri, G.T. Whetstone & J.P. Bauman

Stabilisation/solidification of manufactured gas plant wastes: Part 3 – selected case histories 223
M.A. Fleri, G.T. Whetstone & J.P. Bauman

Solidification of water treatment works sludge with ettringite cement and pulverised-fuel ash 235
D. Johnson

Stabilisation/solidification of dredging sludge containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 241

E. Mulder, L. Feenstra, J.P. Brouwer, J.W. Frenay & S. Bos

La Floridienne: the first large scale immobilization project in Belgium 249

S. Pensaert

The remediation of the acid tar lagoons, Rieme Belgium 255

S. Pensaert

vi
PIMS with Apatite II: A field scale demonstration on a lead contaminated soil 261
J. Wright, J.L. Conca & A.F. Slater
Industrial experiences in the use of S/S technology to remediate and reuse dredged sediments 267
E.P. Yates & W.J. Gush

Theme 5: Stabilisation of uncontaminated materials

Geosynthetic reinforcement of high-alkaline soils: Basics and two typical projects 277
D. Alexiew & G.J. Horgan
Influence of soil and binder properties on the efficacy of accelerated carbonation 285
L.H. Barnard, D.I. Boardman, C.D.F. Rogers, C.D. Hills, P.J. Carey, K. Canning & C.L. MacLeod
Properties of mixes of sugar cane fibre waste with cement binding 297
R. Jeetah, A. Seeboo, C.P. Khedun & T. Dusoruth
Recent advances in numerical modelling of deep-stabilized soil 303
M. Karstunen, H. Krenn & A. Aalto

Theme 6: Beyond conventional stabilisation/solidification

Lead contamination and immobilization at shooting range sites 313
X. Cao, D. Dermatas, G. Shen & L.Q. Ma
Effect of microbial activities on the mobility of copper in stabilised contaminated soil 323
U.E. Duru & A. Al-Tabbaa
Development of geomaterials with various immobilisation treatments for heavy
metals and evaluation of environmental impact 335
K. Omine, H. Ochiai & N. Yasufuku
Stabilization of chromium by reductase enzyme treatment 347
K.S.M. Rahman & M.A.V. Murthy
Stabilising inorganic contaminants in soils: considerations for the use of smart additives 357
H. Weigand, C. Gemeinhardt & C. Marb

State of practice reports

UK stabilisation/solidification treatment and remediation
Part I: Binders and technologies – basic principles 365
A. Al-Tabbaa & A.S.R. Perera
Part II: Binders and technologies – research 387
A. Al-Tabbaa & A.S.R. Perera
Part III: Binders and technologies – applications 399
A. Al-Tabbaa & A.S.R. Perera
Part IV: Testing and performance criteria 415
A.S.R. Perera, A. Al-Tabbaa, J.M. Reid & J.A. Stegemann
Part V: Long-term performance and environmental impact 437
A.S.R. Perera, A. Al-Tabbaa, J.M. Reid & D. Johnson
Part VI: Quality assurance and quality control 459
A.S.R. Perera, A. Al-Tabbaa & D. Johnson
Part VII: Good practice guidance documents 469
A.S.R. Perera, A. Al-Tabbaa & D. Johnson
Author index 487

vii
 Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and Remediation – Al-Tabbaa & Stegemann (eds)
© 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1537 460 X

Preface

Stabilisation/Solidification (S/S) has emerged as an efficient method for the treatment of certain hazardous wastes
and contaminated ground and has become widely used. S/S technologies include a wide range of similar processes
that involve mixing inorganic cementitious or pozzolanic binders, such as Portland cement, coal fly ash or blast
furnace slag, into the waste or soil to transform it into a solid material of low leachability. The treated waste prod-
uct encapsulates potentially hazardous contaminants, reducing contact between the waste and any potential
leachant. In addition to physical encapsulation, various waste-binder interactions occur to chemically immobilise
contaminants in the product, further reducing the potential for pollutant transfer into the environment.
Although waste disposal to landfill is generally regarded as the least favoured waste management option,
hazardous industrial wastes that cannot be recycled or destroyed will continue to be produced and require
safe disposal. Despite incomplete information regarding the long-term durability and waste retention properties
of the materials produced by S/S, necessity, and the lack of other effective remediation methods, is driving these
types of technologies to become increasingly widely used in many countries. In France and the USA for example,
S/S is now seen as a major treatment technology for hazardous wastes. There has been some S/S used for waste treat-
ment in the UK during the last 15 years, but these technologies have, until now, not been able to compete with
direct co-disposal of hazardous and liquid industrial wastes and contaminated soils to landfill with municipal solid
wastes.
The EU Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC, implemented in the UK under the Landfill Regulations 2002, is
having a significant impact on UK waste management. Under the Directive, landfill sites are classified as being
restricted to hazardous, non-hazardous or inert wastes; co-disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes has
been banned from 16 July 2004. Consequently, waste treatment prior to landfill disposal is likely to be increas-
ingly required. An EU Technical Adaptation Committee has set waste acceptance criteria for different classes of
landfill which will determined the degree of pre-treatment required and will affect the choice of treatment tech-
nologies. S/S technologies will almost certainly represent the most cost-effective treatment method available for
major types of industrial wastes that are predominantly inorganic.
There is also a legacy of industrially contaminated sites in the UK that require some form of remediation
before they can be redeveloped. This has become increasingly important in recent years, as greater environ-
mental awareness and growing pressure on land resources have brought about the protection of greenbelt
and agricultural land. The government has stated that it requires the construction of 2.4 million new homes by
the year 2016, 60% on brownfield sites, much of which was originally used for industrial purposes. However,
as a result of past usage, increased levels of pollution within the soil and groundwater may preclude such sites
from immediate construction activity. Some type of ground remediation is therefore required, the choice of
which is governed by performance, speed and economics. These requirements have promoted research into fast,
effective and economical remediation techniques that enable future land commercialisation. Again, S/S is
emerging as a cost-effective and rapid remediation method and has been commercially employed on sites
worldwide.
This book contains refereed papers presented at the International Conference on Stabilisation/Solidification
Treatment and Remediation – Advances in S/S for Waste and Contaminated Land. The objective of the confer-
ence is to share and disseminate the latest developments in the research and applications of S/S technologies.
The conference is organised by the UK EPSRC-funded network on stabilisation/solidification treatment and
remediation (STARNET). The conference was held at Cambridge University Engineering Department and
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge on 12–13 April 2005. In addition to the papers, the proceedings include
summaries of the keynote lectures and the seven state of practice reports on UK stabilisation/solidification
treatment and remediation produced as part of the STARNET activities over the past four years.
The papers in the proceedings are divided into the following six themes:
Binder and Technology Selection
Applicability of different types of binders and binder systems to wastes and contaminated soils
Testing, QA/QC and Good Practice Guidance Documents
Suitability of current test methods for evaluating performance of S/S systems, performance criteria, properties
of correctly treated S/S materials and guidance on the use of S/S

ix
Long-Term Performance and Environmental Impact
Properties and degradation mechanisms of S/S materials in the long term, ageing of S/S materials and sustain-
ability issues
Case Studies
Commercial in-situ and ex-situ applications of S/S to a wide range of waste sites and contaminated land
Stabilisation of Uncontaminated Materials
Learning from stabilisation of uncontaminated materials and correlations with S/S of contaminated materials
Beyond Conventional S/S
Emerging S/S materials and techniques including biological stabilisation techniques
The topics covered in the seven state of practice reports on UK Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and
Remediation are:
Part I: Binders and Technologies – Basic Principles
Part II: Binders and Technologies – Research
Part III: Binders and Technologies – Applications
Part IV: Testing and Performance Criteria
Part V: Long-Term Performance and Environmental Impact
Part VI: Quality Assurance and Quality Control
Part VII: Good Practice Guidance Documents
STARNET was established in May 2001 to build a network of key participants to work together to promote
the development of research work on and implementation of UK stabilisation/solidification treatment and
remediation practices. STARNET has a core membership of 26, from 24 different organisations including aca-
demia, consultants, contractors and regulators. Its extended worldwide membership is currently at 94 members.
A website was established at www-starnet.eng.cam.ac.uk, which contains details of the STARNET activities
and publications. In addition to quarterly meetings, STARNET hosted a workshop in July 2002 to address
knowledge gaps and research needs, a summary of which was published in the Journal of Land Contamination
and Reclamation, 2003, Vol. 11 (1), pp 71–79.
On behalf of STARNET, we thank the many excellent contributors to our network, workshop and conference,
and trust that the body of knowledge in this book will be useful to the S/S community and to the wider
communities of contaminated land remediation and waste management.

Abir Al-Tabbaa and Julia Stegemann

Editors

x
 Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and Remediation – Al-Tabbaa & Stegemann (eds)
© 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1537 460 X

Conference organising and technical committee

Dr Abir Al-Tabbaa Cambridge University Mr Hedley Greaves Buxton Lime Industries

Mr Ramesh Perera Cambridge University Ms Leslie Heasman MJCA
Dr Julia Stegemann University College London Dr Colin Hills University of Greenwich
Dr Murray Reid Viridis Dr David Johnson S/S Remediation Consultancy
Dr David Boardman Birmingham University Ms Joanne Kwan CIRIA
Dr Brian Bone Environment Agency Dr Gordon Lethbridge Shell Global Solutions
Mr Keith Bradshaw Enverity Dr Cecilia MacLeod ARCADIS
Dr Ed Butcher BNFL Dr Peter Mallory Lafarge Cement
Dr Chris Cheeseman Imperial College London Dr Sabeha Ouki University of Surrey
Dr Chris Clear BCA Prof. Chris Rogers Birmingham University
Dr Gev Eduljee SITA Mr Steve Roscoe Grundon
Dr Chris Evans May Gurney Dr Rob Sweeney CL:AIRE
Dr Stephanie Glendinning University of Newcastle Dr David Tonks EDGE Consultants

xi
Keynote lectures
 Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and Remediation – Al-Tabbaa & Stegemann (eds)
© 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1537 460 X

The Landfill Directive and its implications for the remediation of

contaminated soils

J.R. Gronow
Environment Agency, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol, UK

ABSTRACT: The Landfill Directive requires the introduction of the characterisation and pre-treatment of
hazardous and non-hazardous wastes destined for landfill disposal. One consequence of the directive is that the
number of active landfills in the UK is decreasing significantly. These factors are having a considerable impact
on the current disposal options for contaminated soils. There is a need for a fundamental revision of the
approach taken to the remediation of contaminated sites away from the heavy dependency on landfill and
towards a much greater use of treatment technologies.

1 INTRODUCTION The main implications of these requirements are that

the economics and availability of landfill as a means
The implementation of the Landfill Directive (1999/ of dealing with contaminated soils will be altered.
31/EC) and the associated Decision (2003/33/EC) is This indicates that a basic change is required in the
having a very significant impact in those parts of remediation of contaminated sites. The dependency
Europe that do not have a waste management infra- on landfill should be reduced in favour of the use of
structure based on incineration. Planning for the treatment technologies.
required changes provides an opportunity to review
the cost and the sustainability of the measures that are
being put in place to meet the directive. 3 THE IMPACT OF THE NEW MEASURES

2 LANDFILL DIRECTIVE REQUIREMENTS 3.1 Classification

Landfills must be classified for hazardous, non-haz-
The following requirements impact most on the reme- ardous or inert waste. Such sites will only be able to
diation of contaminated soils: accept wastes within these categories (although non-
– the classification of landfills and the end of the hazardous sites can also accept inert waste). Until 16
co-disposal of hazardous with non-hazardous wastes; July 2004 existing hazardous landfills were able to
– prohibition of certain waste types from landfill; continue to co-dispose hazardous waste with non-
– pre-treatment of wastes before landfill; hazardous waste. Now, they may only accept treated
– the general characterisation and testing of waste to hazardous wastes as defined by the Hazardous Waste
be landfilled that must be based on a three-level Directive (91/689/EEC).
hierarchy; At the time of writing, Defra is consulting on
– the setting of waste acceptance criteria for the changes to hazardous waste legislation in England, to
deposit of waste in inert sites and the landfilling of implement the new European Waste Catalogue (EWC,
hazardous waste. 2000/532/EC as amended by Decisions 2001/118/EC,
2001/119/EC and 2001/573/EC). However, the Landfill
In order to landfill a contaminated soil: Regulations (SI 2002:1559 as amended) refer directly
– it must have been treated; to the Hazardous Waste Directive (HWD) for the def-
– the resultant product must not be a prohibited inition of hazardous. As the HWD incorporates the
waste; new EWC, it is this list which must be used to define
– the product must be characterised and assessed as hazardous for the purpose of classifying wastes des-
to whether it is hazardous or non-hazardous; and tined for landfilling.
– the product must comply with the acceptance crite- If a waste is hazardous, then it must comply with
ria for the most appropriate class of landfill. criteria for hazardous waste landfill, or for hazardous

3
waste deposited in a non-hazardous waste landfill. If Landfills for non-hazardous waste can accept:
it is not hazardous waste, then the decision is whether
– municipal waste;
it can be accepted at landfill for inert waste, or must
– non-hazardous wastes which fulfils national waste
go to landfill for non-hazardous waste. In choosing a
acceptance criteria, primarily based on leachate
treatment, it will therefore be sensible to have regard
concentrations; and
to the disposal cost and availability of the class of
– stable non-reactive hazardous wastes, which has a
landfill to which the product must be disposed.
leaching behaviour equivalent to that of non-
New categories for soil and dredging spoil were
hazardous waste and which fulfils the waste
established by the EWC. The soil and dredging types
acceptance criteria.
are coded as:
Landfills for inert waste can only accept waste that
are either on the list of inert wastes given in table 1 of
17 05 soil (including excavated soil from schedule 1 of the first Landfill Amendment Regulations
contaminated sites), stones & dredging spoil or meet the criteria set out in tables 2 & 3 of those
17 05 03* soil & stones containing dangerous substances regulations. These are updated in the draft second
17 05 04 soils & stones other than those mentioned in Landfill Amendment Regulations, which are out for
17 05 03 consultation at the time of drafting this paper. It
17 05 05* dredging spoil containing dangerous should be noted that these criteria include a low total
substances organic carbon content of 30,000 mg/kg or a dissolved
17 05 06 dredging spoil other than those mentioned organic carbon value of 500 mg/kg, which should be
in 17 05 05 evaluated against the appropriate standard leaching
test BS EN 12457:1-3 (available from the British
Standards Institute). They also contain total content
Any waste marked with an asterisk is considered to be limits for BTEX compounds, PCBs, PAHs and min-
a hazardous waste. Where an entry makes a reference eral oils. Many lightly contaminated soils are likely to
to dangerous substances, these entries are termed fail these criteria and will therefore have to undergo
‘mirror entries’ as there is both a hazardous and non- further treatment to meet the criteria or be disposed of
hazardous entry for the waste on the list. These wastes at landfills for non-hazardous wastes.
have the potential to be hazardous or non-hazardous
depending on their actual composition and the con-
3.2 Prohibited wastes
centrations of dangerous substances within the wastes.
If the concentrations of dangerous substances exceed In general, wastes that are liquid, explosive, oxidis-
the relevant thresholds then the waste is hazardous ing, flammable, corrosive or infectious are prohibited
and the appropriate EWC entry is the one marked from landfill, should they have those characteristics
with an asterisk. Otherwise the non-hazardous entry in the conditions of a landfill. Therefore, such wastes
is appropriate. must either be eliminated at source, or subject to a
Contaminated soils are wastes that have the potential treatment that either obviates the need for landfill or
to be hazardous. If landfilled, when so classified, they that produces residue(s) that do not exhibit those
must comply with the waste acceptance criteria for characteristics under landfill conditions.
hazardous waste landfills, set out in the first Landfill
Amendment Regulations (SI 2004:1375). It is impor-
3.3 Treatment
tant to note that the waste acceptance criteria exclude
some wastes even from hazardous waste landfills. The Landfill Regulations require all wastes to be
Whether contaminated soils are hazardous or not treated prior to landfilling, regardless of whether they
will be determined by the nature and concentration of meet the waste acceptance criteria or not. Treatment
contaminants present within the soil. Implications for is not necessary for inert wastes where it is not tech-
the landfilling contaminated soils are that, in order to nically feasible, nor for any other wastes for which
determine whether they are hazardous or not, they treatment would not contribute to reducing the to be
must be assessed against all hazards H1–H14. This is treated before landfill quantity or hazardousness of
more onerous than the previous requirement for an the waste.
assessment to determine whether a soil was a special In the Landfill Regulations, treatment is defined as
waste or not. The Agency has published a technical physical, thermal, chemical, or biological processes
guidance note entitled criteria and protocols for the (including sorting) that change the characteristics of
assessment and classification of hazardous waste. waste in order to reduce its volume or hazardous nature,
This is available on the Agency’s website and pro- facilitate its handling or enhance recovery. Dilution
vides guidance on the use of the new EWC including of waste via mixing with uncontaminated media to
the assessment of hazards H1–H14. meet acceptance criteria is not an acceptable treatment

4
method. The Environment Agency has produced draft the volume of a skip are declared to be of no concern.
guidance on the interpretation of treatment require- This means that during characterisation of the waste,
ments. This can be found in the consultations section concentration and leaching data must be representa-
of the Agency’s website. tive of average concentrations within that skip.
Treatment includes sorting. This measure is one that The term batch, used in Decision 2003/33/EC is
appears to have potential in the remediation of con- also an important concept in relation to sampling
taminated soils. The segregation of a lightly contami- prior to testing and is taken to mean the overall popu-
nated soil from the more heavily contaminated soils lation and represents the total volume of waste about
also has economic benefits. However, it should be which information is required through sampling. It
noted that if sorting is to be regarded as a treatment, can vary from the total amount of a one-off waste to
not all of the resulting fractions can be landfilled – the total volume of waste generated by a factory in a
one fraction at least must be diverted from landfill. given year.
The draft Second Landfill Amendment Regulations Wastes can be divided into the three following
contain waste acceptance criteria for monolithic wastes categories, according to the way in which they are
and therefore provide the information by which the produced.
effectiveness of different treatment routes can be com-
pared. Until a European tank leaching test is available, – One-off wastes. Compliance testing for these wastes
the test to be used to characterise waste to compare is not necessary, as characterisation of the total
with these criteria is an English translation of a Dutch amount of the waste (the batch) is required prior to
standard test, NEN 7345 (1995) Leaching character- landfilling.
istics of soil and stony building and waste materials. – Regularly generated wastes that are produced by
It is proposed that there is a Total Organic Carbon the same process. The process(es) generating these
limit of 6% or a Loss on Ignition limit of 10% on any wastes are well known and the input materials are
waste that is to be treated to form a monolithic waste. well defined. The waste(s) may be from a single
This may restrict the use of this treatment for some installation or different installations that produce a
heavily contaminated soils. stream that is consistent, with common character-
istics and known boundaries (e.g. bottom ash from
the incineration of municipal waste). For these
3.4 The three level hierarchy
wastes, characterisation should be sufficient to
The Landfill Regulations stipulate that, with a few enable the variability of those characteristics to be
given exemptions, each type of waste to be accepted assessed and in particular to demonstrate that the
at a landfill should be characterised (level 1) to ensure waste is consistently below the appropriate waste
all information necessary for safe disposal of the acceptance criteria. Compliance testing, commonly
waste in the long term. In order to do so, it must be limited to a restricted list of key variables, should
subject to prior testing to establish its composition, its then be undertaken at regular intervals to ensure the
leaching behaviour and the frequency of compliance process remains within the identified boundaries.
testing. The Landfill Directive requires that wastes – Regularly generated wastes that are produced by a
arriving at a landfill should be subject to regular com- process, where the process producing these wastes
pliance testing (level 2) to determine whether it com- generates an inconsistent end-product. This could,
plies with permit conditions, including the relevant for example, be due to either inconsistent inputs or
waste acceptance criteria. This is not required if it is a a variable process recipe. Examples are an aggre-
one-off waste that has been characterised directly gate recovery plant or a merchant waste-treatment
prior to landfilling. A visual inspection of each load plant.
of waste arriving at a site (level 3) is also required.
Sampling is a crucially important part of the test- For wastes in the latter category, if characterisation
ing exercises and must be carried out according to the can be undertaken on the entire population, i.e. the
European pre standard PrEN 14899 (available from total batch or consignment destined for landfill (even
British Standards Institute). This standard requires if disposal is as a number of loads) then, as the entire
the use of a sampling plan, appropriate to the waste in consignment has effectively been tested, no compli-
question and is likely to lead to significantly increased ance checks would be required. However, there is a
sampling and testing costs. need to undertake compliance testing on regular
The scale of sampling is important in defining a waste arisings, where it is not possible to characterise
sampling programme prior to testing. It defines the the entire population or batch of waste requiring
minimum quantity (mass or volume) of material below disposal.
which variations are judged to be unimportant. For If arisings from a regular but non-consistent
example, if the scale is defined to be a skip of waste, process in any given week or month were being con-
then variations in any characteristic of the waste within sidered and characterisation could only be undertaken

5
on a sub-population of the total to be disposed of, a the landfill operator would be likely to require com-
potential testing route would be, either: pliance checks to show this has been satisfactorily
carried out.
– to undertake characterisation when knowledge of
the activity indicates that sampling will encompass
the expected variability in the waste stream; and then
4 CONCLUSIONS
– to undertake regular compliance checks over the
period of the process or activity to check that the
The Landfill Directive and associated legislation
waste stream is within the ranges previously deter-
introduces a raft of measures with considerable impli-
mined; or
cations for the remediation of contaminated soils.
– to sample and characterise the output on a fre-
These measures entail increased responsibilities for
quent, regular basis and landfill the waste as one-
waste holders to characterise their wastes, a signifi-
off batches, the whole of which are characterised
cant increase in the cost of landfilling and a reduction
each time.
in the number of landfill sites. It is suggested that the
Soil from the remediation of a contaminated site time has come to invest in treatment technologies that
needs some consideration. A site remediation, where reduce reliance on landfilling.
access is available to all materials requiring excava-
tion could be considered as a one-off waste, where
compliance testing is unnecessary. A comprehensive ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & DISCLAIMER
site investigation report that followed a probabilistic
sampling exercise could be regarded as the character- The Author wishes to acknowledge the extensive and
isation report. This would be acceptable provided it professional advice of Kathy Lewin, Jane Turrell and
was produced with due regard to the calculation of Julian Ellis on sampling and testing issues and of Steve
sample numbers, sizes and sample locations and was Gibbs of Atkins Design, Environment and Engineering.
compliant with the Landfill Regulations in terms of Atkins has provided a report on land remediation
parameter suites and testing methods. technologies and their potential use in the context of
However, it is more likely that either the site his- the Landfill Directive for the Environment Agency.
tory or site investigation would identify the presence The Environment Agency, its officers, servants or
of material that say, would exceed the waste acceptance agents accept no liability for any loss or damage aris-
criteria for the chosen landfill. Then the segregation ing from interpretation or use of the information or
of waste into different batches would be required and reliance on views contained in this paper.

6
 Stabilisation/Solidification Treatment and Remediation – Al-Tabbaa & Stegemann (eds)
© 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1537 460 X

Deep mixing – properties and applications

G. Holm
Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Linköping, Sweden

ABSTRACT: Deep Mixing is widely used to treat soils to obtain required engineering and environmental
properties in different applications. This paper, which is a short summary of the keynote lecture, is focused on
some engineering properties of stabilized soils. Comments are also given on the influence of mixing energy on
the homogeneity of the stabilized soil.

1 INTRODUCTION This paper has focus on some engineering proper-

ties of stabilized non-contaminated soils. Comments
Deep Mixing has been used since the 1970-ties to sta- are also given on influence of the mixing energy on
bilize soft soils. Over the last 10 years there has been the homogeneity of the stabilized soil.
a great increase in the use of the method. This increase
is related new applications, a wider range of soils as
well as a spread over the globe. One fairly new appli- 2 BINDERS FOR DIFFERENT SOILS
cation is stabilization/solidification of contaminated
land. For this application it is important to select the Different binders give different stabilizing effect in
proper binder and make a good mixing to obtain a different soils. Many studies have been performed.
homogeneous treated soil. For example in the EC-funded research project Euro
One advantage of deep mixing is that it is possible SoilStab the stabilization effect of a large number of
to improve both the engineering and the environmen- binders in a number of European soils were studied.
tal properties. For example taking care of both the sta- In Table 1 the obtained relative strength increase after
bility and the contaminants. A cost-effective treatment 28 days in Nordic soft soils is presented (EuroSoilStab,
of a contaminated land can be achieved. 2001). The table is based on unconfined compression

Table 1. Relative strength increase based on laboratory tests on Nordic soils.

Organic soils,
Silt Clay e.g. Gyttja Organic Clay Peat

Organic Organic Organic Organic

Binder content 0–2% content 0–2% content 2–30% content 50–100%

Cement xx x x xx
Cement
gypsum x x xx xx
Cement
furnace slag xx xx xx xxx
Lime
cement xx xx x –
Lime
gypsum xx xx xx –
Lime
slag x x x –
Lime
gypsum
slag xx xx xx –
Lime
gypsum
cement xx xx xx –
Lime – xx – –

xxx very good binder in many cases.

xx good in many cases.
x good in some cases.
– not suitable.

7
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