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Supervision Essentials for
the Feminist
Psychotherapy
Model of
Supervision
 Clinical Supervision
Essentials Series
Supervision Essentials for Psychodynamic Psychotherapies
Joan E. Sarnat
Supervision Essentials for the Integrative Developmental Model
Brian W. McNeill and Cal D. Stoltenberg
Supervision Essentials for the Feminist Psychotherapy Model of Supervision
Laura S. Brown
Clinical Supervision Essentials
HANNA LEVENSON and ARPANA G. INMAN, Series Editors

Supervision Essentials for

the Feminist
Psychotherapy
Model of
Supervision

Laura S. Brown

American Psychological Association • Washington, DC

Copyright © 2016 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved. Except
as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, including, but not limited to,
the process of scanning and digitization, or stored in a database or retrieval system, with-
out the prior written permission of the publisher.
Published by To order
American Psychological Association APA Order Department
750 First Street, NE P.O. Box 92984
Washington, DC 20002 Washington, DC 20090-2984
www.apa.org Tel: (800) 374-2721; Direct: (202) 336-5510
Fax: (202) 336-5502; TDD/TTY: (202) 336-6123
Online: www.apa.org/pubs/books
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In the U.K., Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, copies may be ordered from
American Psychological Association
3 Henrietta Street
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Typeset in Minion by Circle Graphics, Inc., Columbia, MD
Printer: Maple Press, York, PA
Cover Designer: Mercury Publishing Services, Inc., Rockville, MD
The opinions and statements published are the responsibility of the authors, and such
opinions and statements do not necessarily represent the policies of the American
Psychological Association.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Brown, Laura S., author.
Title: Supervision essentials for the feminist psychotherapy model of supervision /
Laura S. Brown.
Description: Washington, DC : American Psychological Association, [2016] |
Series: Clinical supervision essentials series | Includes bibliographical references
and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015042276| ISBN 9781433822018 | ISBN 1433822016
Subjects: LCSH: Feminist therapy. | Psychotherapists—Supervision of.
Classification: LCC RC489.F45 B77 2016 | DDC 616.89/14—dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015042276
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record is available from the British Library.
Printed in the United States of America
First Edition
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14878-000
 Contents

Foreword to the Clinical Supervision Essentials Series vii

Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Basic Principles of Feminist Supervision 11
Chapter 2. Epistemologies and Methodologies 41
of Feminist Supervision
Chapter 3. Structure and Process of Feminist Supervision 65
Chapter 4. Handling Common Supervisory Challenges 79
Chapter 5. Development of Supervisors, Development 109
of the Field: Future Directions for Feminist
Supervision Practice
Appendix A: Sample Feminist Supervision Evaluation Form 123
Appendix B: Sample Feminist Supervision Agreement 125
Appendix C: Sample Private Practice Consultation Agreement— 129
Professional Consultation Services Agreement
Appendix D: Feminist Therapy Institute Code 131
of Ethics (Revised, 1999)

v
 contents

Suggested Readings 139

References 141
Index 149
About the Author 159

vi
 Foreword to the Clinical
Supervision Essentials Series

W e are both clinical supervisors. We teach courses on supervision of

students who are in training to become therapists. We give work-
shops on supervision and consult with supervisors about their supervision
practices. We write and do research on the topic. To say we eat and breathe
supervision might be a little exaggerated, but only slightly. We are fully
invested in the field and in helping supervisors provide the most informed
and helpful guidance to those learning the profession. We also are commit-
ted to helping supervisees/consultees/trainees become better collaborators
in the supervisory endeavor by understanding their responsibilities in the
supervisory process.
What is supervision? Supervision is critical to the practice of therapy.
As stated by Edward Watkins1 in the Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervi-
sion, “Without the enterprise of psychotherapy supervision, . . . the prac-
tice of psychotherapy would become highly suspect and would or should
cease to exist” (p. 603).
Supervision has been defined as

an intervention provided by a more senior member of a profession to

a more junior colleague or colleagues who typically (but not always)
are members of that same profession. This relationship

77 is evaluative and hierarchical,

77 extends over time, and
1 Watkins, C. E., Jr. (Ed.). (1997). Handbook of psychotherapy supervision. New York, NY: Wiley.

vii
 FOREWORD TO THE CLINICAL SUPERVISION ESSENTIALS SERIES

77 has the simultaneous purposes of enhancing the professional function-

ing of the more junior person(s); monitoring the quality of professional
services offered to the clients that she, he, or they see; and serving as a
gatekeeper for the particular profession the supervisee seeks to enter.
(p. 9)2

It is now widely acknowledged in the literature that supervision is a

“distinct activity” in its own right.3 One cannot assume that being an excel-
lent therapist generalizes to being an outstanding supervisor. Nor can one
imagine that good supervisors can just be “instructed” in how to supervise
through purely academic, didactic means.
So how does one become a good supervisor?
Supervision is now recognized as a core competency domain for psy-
chologists4,5 and other mental health professionals. Guidelines have been
created to facilitate the provision of competent supervision across pro-
fessional groups and internationally (e.g., American Psychological Asso-
ciation,6 American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy,7 British
Psychological Society,8,9 Canadian Psychological Association10).

2 Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (2014). Fundamentals of clinical supervision (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
3 Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (2014). Fundamentals of clinical supervision (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
4 Fouad, N., Grus, C. L., Hatcher, R. L., Kaslow, N. J., Hutchings, P. S., Madson, M. B., . . . Crossman, R. E.
(2009). Competency benchmarks: A model for understanding and measuring competence in professional
psychology across training levels. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 3(4 Suppl.), S5–S26.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015832
5 Kaslow, N. J., Rubin, N. J., Bebeau, M. J., Leigh, I. W., Lichtenberg, J. W., Nelson, P. D., . . . Smith, I. L.
(2007). Guiding principles and recommendations for the assessment of competence. Professional Psychol-
ogy: Research and Practice, 38, 441–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.38.5.441
6 American Psychological Association. (2014). Guidelines for clinical supervision in health service psychology.
Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/about/policy/guidelines-supervision.pdf
7 American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy. (2007). AAMFT approved supervisor designa-
tion standards and responsibilities handbook. Retrieved from http://www.aamft.org/imis15/Documents/
Approved_Supervisor_handbook.pdf
8 British Psychological Society. (2003). Policy guidelines on supervision in the practice of clinical psychology.
Retrieved from http://www.conatus.co.uk/assets/uploaded/downloads/policy_and_guidelines_on_
supervision.pdf
9 British Psychological Society. (2010). Professional supervision: Guidelines for practice for educational psychol-
ogists. Retrieved from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/educational-psychology/resources/DECP%20Supervision%
20report%20Nov%202010.pdf
10 Canadian Psychological Association. (2009). Ethical guidelines for supervision in psychology: Teach-
ing, research, practice and administration. Retrieved from http://www.cpa.ca/docs/File/Ethics/
EthicalGuidelinesSupervisionPsychologyMar2012.pdf

viii
 FOREWORD TO THE CLINICAL SUPERVISION ESSENTIALS SERIES

The Guidelines for Clinical Supervision in Health Service Psychology11

are built on several assumptions, specifically that supervision

77 requires formal education and training;

77 prioritizes the care of the client/patient and the protection of the public;
77 focuses on the acquisition of competence by and the professional devel-
opment of the supervisee;
77 requires supervisor competence in the foundational and functional
competency domains being supervised;
77 is anchored in the current evidence base related to supervision and the
competencies being supervised;
77 occurs within a respectful and collaborative supervisory relationship
that includes facilitative and evaluative components and is established,
maintained, and repaired as necessary;
77 entails responsibilities on the part of the supervisor and supervisee;
77 intentionally infuses and integrates the dimensions of diversity in all
aspects of professional practice;
77 is influenced by both professional and personal factors, including val-
ues, attitudes, beliefs, and interpersonal biases;
77 is conducted in adherence to ethical and legal standards;
77 uses a developmental and strength-based approach;
77 requires reflective practice and self-assessment by the supervisor and
supervisee;
77 incorporates bidirectional feedback between the supervisor and
supervisee;
77 includes evaluation of the acquisition of expected competencies by the
supervisee;
77 serves a gatekeeping function for the profession; and
77 is distinct from consultation, personal psychotherapy, and mentoring.

The importance of supervision can be attested to by the increase in

state laws and regulations that certify supervisors and the required
multiple super­v isory practica and internships that graduate students
in all professional programs must complete. Furthermore, research has

American Psychological Association. (2014). Guidelines for clinical supervision in health service psychology.
11

Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/about/policy/guidelines-supervision.pdf

ix
 FOREWORD TO THE CLINICAL SUPERVISION ESSENTIALS SERIES

confirmed12 the high prevalence of supervisory responsibilities among

practitioners—specifically that between 85% and 90% of all thera-
pists eventually become clinical supervisors within the first 15 years
of practice.
So now we see the critical importance of good supervision and its
high prevalence. We also have guidelines for its competent practice and an
impressive list of objectives. But is this enough to become a good super-
visor? Not quite. One of the best ways to learn is from highly regarded
supervisors—the experts in the field—those who have the procedural
knowledge13 to know what to do, when, and why.
Which leads us to our motivation for creating this series. As we looked
around for materials that would help us supervise, teach, and research clin-
ical supervision, we were struck by the lack of a coordinated effort to pre­
sent the essential models of supervision in both a didactic and experiential
form through the lens of expert supervisors. What seemed to be needed
was a forum where the experts in the field—those with the knowledge and
the practice—present the basics of their approaches in a readable, acces-
sible, concise fashion and demonstrate what they do in a real supervisory
session. The need, in essence, was for a showcase of best practices.
This series, then, is an attempt to do just that. We considered the major
approaches to supervisory practice—those that are based on theoretical
orientation and those that are metatheoretical. We surveyed psychologists,
teachers, clinical supervisors, and researchers domestically and interna-
tionally working in the area of supervision. We asked them to identify spe-
cific models to include and who they would consider to be experts in this
area. We also asked this community of colleagues to identify key issues that
typically need to be addressed in supervision sessions. Through this con-
sensus building, we came up with a dream team of 11 supervision experts
who not only have developed a working model of supervision but also have
been in the trenches as clinical supervisors for years.

Rønnestad, M. H., Orlinsky, D. E., Parks, B. K., & Davis, J. D. (1997). Supervisors of psychotherapy:
12

Mapping experience level and supervisory confidence. European Psychologist, 2, 191–201.

13Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in
the professions. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

x
 FOREWORD TO THE CLINICAL SUPERVISION ESSENTIALS SERIES

We asked each expert to write a concise book elucidating her or

his approach to supervision. This included highlighting the essential
dimensions/key principles, methods/techniques, and structure/process
involved, the research evidence for the model, and how common super-
visory issues are handled. Furthermore, we asked each author to elucidate
the supervisory process by devoting a chapter describing a supervisory
session in detail, including transcripts of real sessions, so that the readers
could see how the model comes to life in the reality of the supervisory
encounter.
In addition to these books, each expert filmed an actual supervisory
session with a supervisee so that her or his approach could be demon-
strated in practice. APA Books has produced these videos as a series and
they are available as DVDs (http://www.apa.org/pubs/videos). Each of
these books and videos can be used together or independently, as part
of the series or alone, for the reader aspiring to learn how to supervise,
for supervisors wishing to deepen their knowledge, for trainees wanting
to be better supervisees, for teachers of courses on supervision, and for
researchers investigating this pedagogical process.

About This Book

In this book, Supervision Essentials for the Feminist Psychotherapy Model of
Supervision, Laura S. Brown takes the qualities predictive of good super-
vision across models (e.g., openness, authenticity, self-examination, self-
disclosure) and expands them to another level by considering the larger
sociopolitical context in which clients, therapists, and supervisors func-
tion. From this feminist/multicultural position, supervisors focus on pro-
moting supervisees’ autonomy and diverse perspectives. They view their
responsibilities as including advocacy roles on behalf of supervisees in the
training setting and clients in the clinical setting.
Dr. Brown provides many compelling case studies to help the super­
visor understand how to wrestle with creating a model of psychological
practice that is, in her words, “liberatory as well as healing.” With each
chapter, she demonstrates how supervision is conducted to not only analyze

xi
 FOREWORD TO THE CLINICAL SUPERVISION ESSENTIALS SERIES

power dynamics but also actually strive to be a social justice practice. No

matter what your orientation (politically, socially, or clinically), Dr. Brown’s
approach is enormously powerful to help us consider the responsibilities of
what it means to be a clinical supervisor and bring a contextual, collabora-
tive, and interpersonal focus to the supervisory process.
We thank you for your interest and hope the books in this series enhance
your work in a stimulating and relevant way.

Hanna Levenson and Arpana G. Inman

xii
 Preface

I am a practicing feminist therapist. With the exception of 8 years spent in

academia, 3 at the beginning of my career and 5 in the early part of this
century during which I maintained a part-time practice, I have been in full-
time practice as a feminist therapist since I received my doctorate in 1977.
I have been practicing supervision in both academic and private-practice
settings since 1 month after receiving that degree. Like many supervisors of
my cohort, I received no formal training in supervision. Instead, my having
a doctorate and a faculty position was treated as evidence of my ability to
supervise.
My own formal supervision experiences during my doctoral training
before internship can be described as ranging from dismal to appalling.
Few of the people who formally supervised me in my graduate program
had seen a client after their own internships, all of which had occurred
many years before I started graduate school. Consistent with their age
cohort, none of them had thought about dynamics of gender and power in
psychotherapy or their own lives, and they were ill-prepared to encounter
an angry, well-read, and energetic young feminist student confronting them
about sexism at every turn. Some of them were uncomfortable with my
being the first open lesbian of their acquaintance, and what is now described
as aversive bias (e.g., nonconscious bias that is at odds with people’s
conscious values of being unbiased) often leaked into our interactions.

xiii
 Preface

Hired into my first academic job as I fell out of graduate student status
and into that of faculty at my doctoral program, I was immediately given
the task of running a feminist therapy supervision practicum, something
that I had been among those clamoring for while I was still a student. I had
no formal course work in supervision and several less-than-outstanding
supervisory experiences. It seemed that, just as feminist therapy was then
about not doing what was generally being done by therapists, feminist
supervision would be an attempt to remediate the problems that I had
experienced while infusing my understanding of what feminist therapy
meant into the supervisory process.
This was a trial by fire for me and everyone in the group, as we tried
to juggle role overlap (almost everyone I was supervising in the group that
year was a friend and former peer from my doctoral program or a friend
and colleague from the feminist community in our small university town),
power dynamics (although I was the faculty member, I was years younger
and sometimes decades younger than the people I was supervising, which
created interesting and challenging explorations of power and privilege),
my growing awareness of what it meant to have legal and ethical respon-
sibility for the work of others (and my post-hoc appraisal of my great
fortune in supervising a collection of ethical, thoughtful people), and the
thorny question of evaluation (somewhat evaded by the pass–fail nature
of the course, but never entirely out of mind, especially when I had sec-
ond thoughts about what people were doing with their clients). It was
my introduction to being in a defined position of power, which in turn
taught me new and enlightening ways to consider and understand power
dynamics.
I stumbled and fell quite a lot that year; I was fortunate in that the col-
lective that was the supervision group contained many mature feminists,
many of them from among my peer consultants, who shared the goal of
discovering what feminist supervision could mean and who supported
my professional development as an infant supervisor every bit as much,
and perhaps more, than I was able yet to support their growing capacities
as feminist therapists. It was a study in the reciprocity and mutuality that
came to be identified as core to feminist supervision. I emerged from that
year knowing how much I liked supervision and how much I needed to

xiv
 Preface

learn to do it well. In my next, also brief, academic position, I sought out

opportunities to supervise, encountering many of the same conundrums
that had challenged me in my first job (e.g., power issues arising from my
junior age juxtaposed with my academic position relative to the doctoral
students I was training), and becoming increasingly aware of the impor-
tance of supervision for imparting feminist principles to trainees who
were not, in contrast to my first supervision group, already familiar with
and grounded in feminist constructs.
When I left my paid position in academia in 1980 for full-time private
practice, I retained an appointment as an adjunct faculty for the simple
goal of being able to continue to supervise doctoral students. I had been
bitten by the bug. Over time, as I published in the field of feminist therapy
theory and practice, I also began to be increasingly sought out as a con-
sultant by other psychotherapists. During the 1980s and 1990s, feminist
therapy educators, chief among them Natalie Porter, began to write about
feminist supervision. Reading this material has constituted my formal
education on this topic.
The reality is that like many psychologists of my cohort of psycho-
therapy supervisors, I have learned by doing, attending to what was and
was not helpful to me, and what I learned, from those I supervised, was
and was not helpful to them. In 2006, on the heels of leaving a second
brief stint in academia, I founded a feminist therapy training clinic, the
Fremont Community Therapy Project, where, between 2006 and 2015, I
was able to directly supervise many pre- and postdoctoral trainees every
year. Those 60 women and men have, in turn, taught me infinitely more
about how feminist therapy theory applies to the practice of supervision.
They have given me unasked-for opportunities for difficult supervisory
encounters that have honed my skills and challenged my understanding
of how to apply principles of egalitarianism in the context of a necessarily
hierarchical supervisory relationship. They have taught me how to reme-
diate a problematic trainee from a feminist perspective and schooled me
in the limitations of an empowerment model. They have been a lens and a
mirror in which I have been required to observe myself and my struggles
with applying egalitarian principles to supervision practice; without them,
I could never have considered embarking on the project of this book.

xv
 Preface

It is solely because of the people I have supervised that anyone today

considers me an expert supervisor worthy of writing this book. As has
been true for me as a feminist therapist, whose best teachers have been
my clients, so also for me as a feminist supervisor, whose best teachers
continue to be the people I supervise.

xvi
 Acknowledgments

T hanks are due to trainees, friends, and colleagues whose work contrib-
uted to my ability to conceptualize this topic. Natalie Porter, PhD, has
been the guiding light to everyone in the field of feminist psychotherapy
supervision. Without her work and both her initial and continuing theo-
retical frameworks I would not have known how to venture into this topic.
Her wise counsel continues to inform me as a supervisor.
Dana Waters, PsyD, ABPP, served as a collegial research assistant, kindly
making available to me through her own academic library access several
references to which I would not have otherwise been able to easily gain
access. Her willingness to do so has allowed me to engage in a more thor-
ough and complete review of the literature on feminist supervision and
thus to make this volume fully aligned with the work being written by
others in the field. Dana has also been a tireless volunteer supervisor at the
Fremont Community Therapy Project (FCTP), thus contributing directly
to the feminist context in which I have been able to develop this super­
vision model.
Samantha Slaughter, PsyD, my not-so-junior-any-longer colleague,
has been an invaluable companion as I developed my work as a feminist
supervisor. Our cosupervision of trainees at the FCTP between 2009 and
2014 was an eye-opening experience that taught me yet another strat-
egy for creating egalitarian and empowering supervision relationships.
Samantha also did me the honor of being the supervised person in

xvii
 Acknowledgments

Feminist Therapy Supervision, the companion DVD that is discussed

in this book; her participation energized and inspired me to do my
best work.
Finally, every person whom I have supervised since 1977 has taught
me how to be a feminist supervisor and has given me the experiential
knowledge that is foundational to my model of feminist supervision. I
wish to especially thank the women in the first feminist therapy practicum
at Southern Illinois University in 1977–1978, and the 60–plus people who
were trainees at the FCTP between 2006 and 2015. Special thanks to Lena
Swanson, PsyD; Carolyn Coyle Matthews, PsyD; Sierra Swing-Kent, PsyD;
and Melanie Mitchell, PsyD, who collectively had the idea that I should
start a training clinic for their practicum experience (Lena and Carolyn)
and start an internship track in said clinic (Sierra and Melanie). You all
pushed me over the edge of “can I do this” to “collectively, as feminists,
we can make this work somehow.” Which we did. Without the experience
of running FCTP for the past decade, I would know so much less about
feminist supervision.
The case examples in this book represent an amalgam, in each instance,
of two or more individuals, whether the people being described are train-
ees or their clients. Every effort has been made to disguise details of the
parties who inspired those examples. Specific details about myself and the
super­vision video that accompanies this book are not disguised and are
included with the knowledge and active participation of Dr. Slaughter.
And as is always the case, I am eternally grateful to my clients, who
have taught me the most important things I know about being a therapist
and who continue to inspire me to excellence in all of my professional
endeavors.

xviii
Supervision Essentials for
the Feminist
Psychotherapy
Model of
Supervision
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