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 Principles of
Functional Verification
 Principles of
Functional Verification
by Andreas Meyer

AMSTERDAM
BOSTON
HEIDELBERG
LONDON

NEW YORK
OXFORD
PARIS
SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO
SINGAPORE
SYDNEY
TOKYO
Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier Science.

Copyright ß 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written,

Elsevier Science prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Meyer, Andreas.
Principles of functional verification / Andreas Meyer.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-7506-7617-5
1. Integrated circuits–Verification. I. Title.
TK7885.7.M49 2003
621.3815048–dc21
2003056421

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book.

For information, please contact:

Manager of Special Sales

Elsevier Science
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Burlington, MA 01803
Tel: 781-313-4700
Fax: 781-313-4880

For information on all Newnes publications available, contact our World Wide
Web home page at: http://www.newnespress.com

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Chapter 1: Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... .. 1

Why Functional Verification Is Needed. . . . . . . . . .......... .. 2
The Goal of Functional Verification . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 3
Organization of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 8
Approach of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 9

Chapter 2: Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . ......... ......... . . 11

Abstraction Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .......... . . 11
Verification of a Design. . . . . . . . . . .......... .......... . . 15
Definition of a Test . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .......... . . 18

Chapter 3: Methods for Determining the Validity of a Model . . . 21

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . 21
Stimulus Generation Methods . . . . . . . . ................. . . 22
Results Analysis Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . 35
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . 48

Chapter 4: Structure and Re-use in Functional Verification . . . . 49

Structured Elements . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . . 50
Highly Parallel Environments . . . . . ..................... . . 57
Database of Transactions . . . . . . . . ..................... . . 60
Data Traffic Domains . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . . 64
Transactor Layering . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . . 72

v
Principles of Functional Verification

Re-use of Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Block-to-System Migration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Chapter 5: Random Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83

Achieving Randomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
Random Test Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
Mixing Directed Random and Random Directed Testing . . . . . . .. 91
Why Is Randomization Effective? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95
Distribution Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
Structuring Effective Randomization Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
The Importance of Being Idle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105
Randomization and Test Re-use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107
Limits of Randomized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108
Running a Random Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113

Chapter 6: Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... .. 115

Goals of Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 118
Methods of Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 124
Choices Based on Project Requirements . . . . . . . . .......... .. 133
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 135

Chapter 7: Measuring Verification Quality. . . . . . ......... .. 137

Estimating Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 138
Overview of Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 140
Comparison of Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 159
Real-World Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 163
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 164

Chapter 8: The Verification Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... .. 165

Goals of the Verification Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 165
Phases of the Verification Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 167
The Phases in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 170
Coverage and Completion Requirements . . . . . . . . .......... .. 176
Resource Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 179

vi
 Contents

Project Schedule Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Chapter 9: Applying Functional Verification to a Project .... .. 183

Project Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ..... .. 184
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ..... .. 186
Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ..... .. 187
Structuring a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ..... .. 192
Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ..... .. 196
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ..... .. 198

Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

vii
 Preface

Functional verification has become a major component of digital

design projects. Various industry surveys show that verification is the
single largest component of the project, taking up more than half of
the total project’s staffing, schedule, and cost. It is often the limiting
factor to project completion, and is becoming the single largest
bottleneck in the industry.
Functional verification is complex, time-consuming, and sometimes
poorly understood. As a result, the verification effort represents one of
the bigger risks to the successful completion of a project.
By providing guidelines and insight into approaches that have been
successful in real-world projects, this book details sets of methods,
tools, and disciplines to smoothly and effectively verify a project.
The examples used in the book are based on verification techniques
that have been used in actual, successful projects. Because these
examples are fairly complex, they are treated in an abstract fashion to
show the intent. There is no one way or one language that works best
for functional verification. The book is language neutral, and shows
the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches so that a
verification plan can be created based on a broad range of techniques
and the requirements of the specific project.

ix
Principles of Functional Verification

For someone with no previous experience in functional verification,

the book introduces the concepts and issues in the field, assuming a
basic understanding of hardware design and simulation.
For a project manager, the book will also provide an understanding of
the time and risk tradeoffs, as well as how to plan, integrate, and
manage the verification portion of the project.
For an engineer who is already involved in functional verification this
book may provide new insight and methods to improve the verification
process.
Functional verification will continue to be the largest piece of a
project. This book is intended to help engineers manage and
understand the verification process so they can reach the goals of
predictable flow, efficient use of resources, and a successful project
outcome.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Robert Fredieu, and my wife, Renee Le Verrier,
for their detailed reviews, reorganizations, copy edits, and support.

x
 CHAPTER

1
Introduction
Verification of electronic designs has become common as the number
and complexity of designs has increased. Common industry estimates
are that functional verification takes approximately 70% of the total
effort on a project, and that the verification process is the single
largest issue in completing a new project.

There are many different types of verification that are used when
designing or building a new system. These may include manufacturing
verification, functional verification, and timing verification, among
others. Each has specific goals, and is used for very different tasks.

Perhaps the oldest verification is called manufacturing verification, or

verification test. This is where a manufactured component, perhaps an
application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or a board is verified
after it has been manufactured. The purpose of this type of verification
is to ensure that a single specific part has been manufactured just like
all other parts. It meets the specifications of the design, and it operates
exactly like the first or any subsequent part. It can be viewed as an
equivalency test that determines if any one particular part is the same
as the first one that was built. Manufacturing tests are usually run on
every single device that is built, and look for identical behavior
between devices.

Unlike a manufacturing test that is run on every part that is built,

functional verification focuses on the design before a single part is

1
Principles of Functional Verification

built. Functional verification attempts to determine if the design will

operate as specified. This requires a specification that indicates what
constitutes correct operation, or how the device is intended to
function.

This area of intent—looking at the design and implementation of the

system and components before they have been built, and perhaps the
first few after they have been built—is the focus of functional
verification.

Why Functional Verification Is Needed

Historically, functional verification was done once a prototype
component was built. The prototype was tested to see if the design
implemented the intent of the architecture by plugging it in and trying
it out. If problems were found, then the prototype was modified as
necessary to fix the design.

For this method to work, a few conditions had to hold true. First,
it had to be possible to observe the internal operation of the prototype
to determine where a problem occurred. Second, it had to be possible
to modify the prototype to correct the problem. Third, one had to
expect that the total number of problems would be small enough that
they could all be reasonably corrected in the prototype.

It is rare for systems designed today to meet all of these conditions.

It is more likely that a project will meet none of them. Few designs
are built of discrete components anymore. That can make it difficult
to modify points in a design that are buried inside a large device.
Modifications between components are also more difficult. In addition
to the complexity of modifying some larger components, the boards
that hold the components now rarely have only two or four layers of
wires, and they tend to be tuned to pass high-speed signals. Cutting
or replacing wires on a board has become difficult, and would result

2
 Introduction

in impedance mismatches and crosstalk that would result in new

failures.
In addition to the problems with modifying boards, as ASICs and
systems on a chip (SoCs) have become commonplace, the ability to
observe the design disappears, and the cost of making a modification is
measured in millions of dollars. Even field programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs), which are easier to modify, will hold on the order of a
million gates in a single device, preventing any reasonable measure of
observability.
Finally, with design sizes measured in millions of gates, one can expect
to find hundreds of errors in the initial design. This is generally too
large a number to be practical to fix in a prototype.
As a result, most modern designs need a testing method that can be
used before a prototype is built. This is the purpose of functional
verification.

The Goal of Functional Verification

The goal of functional verification can be simply stated: to prove that
a design will work as intended. There are four components to
achieving this goal: determine what the intent is, determine what the
design does, compare the two to ensure that they match, and estimate
the level of confidence of the verification effort.

Determining Intent
Determining the intent of the system is a necessity for functional
verification to succeed. The intent could be defined as what the system
is supposed to do, which may be different from what it actually does.
In some cases, the intent may be obvious, when it is possible to clearly
specify the functions that the device must perform. However, for most
reasonably complex digital systems even the intent may not always be
clear. How should a device operate when an error is introduced, or

3
Principles of Functional Verification

when two competing actions are received at the same time, or when a
resource is oversubscribed? It is often the architectural specification
that describes the intent of the system and the implementation
specification that documents how the design is intended to implement
the intent.
Architectural specifications are usually created by examining many use-
cases, which are specific scenarios that describe how the device will
work, and determining the system intent for each use-case. An
architecture is then defined to satisfy all of the use-cases. This is a
reasonable, common approach. The problem that occurs for complex
systems is that one can’t consider every possible scenario of events,
and as a result, the architecture will not always meet the intent of the
system.
In some cases, it may be sufficient to verify that the design accurately
matches the specification. However, the specification itself may have
mistakes. In most complex projects, there are generally a significant
number of specification errors. That is not surprising if the design
specification was created manually from the architectural documents.
The same may be true of the architectural specification. Not all
use-cases will have been considered, or there may be discrepancies
between use-cases. Part of the process of functional verification is to
explore conditions that have not been considered by the architectural
specification, or do not match the intent of the system. All of these
should be found and corrected during the course of functional
verification.
Generally there is a hierarchy of specifications that is created and used
as a project is underway. While many different names are used for
various specifications, Figure 1-1 shows the nomenclature that is used
in this book.
There are generally one or more documents that specify the
architectural requirements of a new document. From these, an

4
 Introduction

Architectural
Requirements Documents

Architectural
Specification

Design
Specification

Design Model

Figure 1-1: Specification Hierarchy

architectural specification is created. This document generally specifies

the functions and components that will be needed to create the new
design.
From an architectural specification, a design specification is created
that outlines how the architectural requirements will be implemented.
With the design specification complete, a design will be created.
The model of the design is project dependent. In some cases, the
model may simply be the implementation of the design. In other cases,
a separate model will be created. The purpose of a separate model
varies based on project requirements. Some uses of models are
discussed in later chapters.

Determining What a Design Does

The second part of functional verification is to determine what a
design does. This is the first step in comparing the design with the
intent. Since the design has not yet been implemented in a prototype,
a model of the design is needed. The model is built in a software

5
Principles of Functional Verification

language that allows simulations to be run. The method used to test

the model is quite traditional: poke it and see what happens. The
poking is frequently referred to as stimulus injection, while the
observation involves collecting and checking the outputs of the
simulation.
Most systems are able to run many different types of operations, often
in parallel. In order to fully determine what a design does, it is
important to examine each operation that is supported. Parallel
operations dramatically increase the complexity of this task, since
ideally all possible combinations of operations must be examined to
determine how the system will react. This is one of the reasons that
functional verification can become quite complex.

Comparing the Intent with the Design

Ideally, one would like to take the intent and the design, poke them
the same way, and check that the results match. That would provide a
direct way to validate that the two are identical. The issue with this is
that intent is not something that can usually be modeled. In some
cases, it may not even be fully understood. Instead, something else
must be used to represent the intent of the system. In some cases,
people have built executable design specifications. That can be useful,
but of course, the specification may also have errors. In other cases,
the intent is captured as a reference model that is supposed to behave
as the system is intended to work. These are some of the uses of the
model block shown in Figure 1-1. Still another is to provide a series of
tests and expected results to run against a design. These approaches,
and most others, rely on comparing two different models, and
examining the discrepancies. It is hoped that two models will not have
exactly the same errors.
In all of these cases, the challenge is in representing the intent of the
system. While the intent may be well understood in the minds of the
architects, that information needs to be extracted into a model that

6
 Introduction

can be examined in a simulation. Another concern is that the intent is

rarely defined completely for reasonably complex systems. There are
usually situations that were not considered. When these situations are
discovered, the architecture is modified to include the new situations,
and both models must be updated accordingly.

Determining Completeness
There are a number of other complexities that arise during the process
of functional verification. One of the most frequently discussed is
determining the completeness criteria of the verification.
Just as the system intent is often not fully defined, the design model
may never be fully tested. There are several reasons for this. First, it is
difficult to ensure that the complete intent of the system is known.
Anything that was not included in the architecture or functional
specification is unlikely to show up in the design or be tested, even
though the function may be required for the system to work. Second,
it is difficult to know if one has poked at the design sufficiently, and
asked all the important questions. Any issue that is found provides
proof that the questions were not all previously asked. However, it is
rare that one can prove that no other questions need asking. This is a
fundamental problem with a negative proof. One generally can’t show
that there are no more errors to be found. Another limit to functional
verification is the impracticality of running a complete test. Any
reasonably sized design is too big to examine completely. Ideally one
would want to see that all possible stimuli are checked in all possible
states of the design. Even a tiny design, with only a few hundred
registers will have more states (2100) than one can ever verify.
As a result, functional verification is rarely certain and rarely complete.
Given the importance of success to many verification projects,
estimation methods are used to provide an approximation of the
quality level of the functional verification.

7
Principles of Functional Verification

Organization of This Book

This book examines the principles of functional verification in more
detail, and introduces a number of methods that are commonly used to
solve these problems. Each chapter begins with a list of key objectives
that are elaborated on throughout the chapter.
Chapters 2 and 3 explore some basic issues around modeling and
architectures. Here, some of the standard methods of simulation and
modeling are examined, and some common nomenclature is defined.
Chapter 4 looks at common methods of functional verification. While
many of these methods can become quite complex, the goals are
straightforward: inject stimulus into a system, determine how the
system was intended to work, and compare the results with the design
model. Structure, modularity, and re-use for functional verification are
important methods to cope with the increasing complexity of designs.
These chapters examine different verification structures and provide
examples for various types of systems.
Chapter 5 introduces the goals and methods of randomization, and
elaborates on how randomization is used in various verification
methods. Randomization is a powerful tool that is an essential part of
most verification processes. However, it must be used properly in order
to be effective, and to avoid misleading results.
When hardware and software designs are related, co-simulation may
be an effective tool for the integration and verification of both
components. Chapter 6 explores the goals and requirements of
hardware and software co-simulation.
Once tests have been run on the design, estimations of the
completeness can be made to determine how well the design has
been tested. Chapter 7 examines some of the methods for
estimation. Since all of these methods are estimates, it is important
to understand the assumptions, limits, and risks of the estimation
techniques.

8
 Introduction

With the basic methods understood, the practical organization of a

verification project is explored. Verification can be complex and
time consuming, often representing a significant portion of an
entire engineering project. A successful project requires a well-planned
approach. Chapter 8 focuses on the verification planning and the
final chapter discusses how the verification can fit into a complete
project flow.
The result is an overview of the principles of functional verification,
and how they are applied to a design project. Most verification projects
today are using these methods to successfully verify projects.

Approach of This Book

This book discusses the methods and approaches that are commonly
used in real projects. The purpose is to show how various methods
are used together, and how they fit into the context of a complete
project flow.
The examples shown in the book are focused on high-level
concepts rather than code examples. There are several reasons for
this. First, a great deal of the complexity of functional verification
is in the interaction and complexity of various tools and
methods. If the concepts of functional verification are understood,
then the implementation is a more straightforward software
development project. Second, there are a number of different
languages and tools available. While the concepts behind the various
tools are almost identical, the actual code styles differ. Finally, some
of the methods are reasonably complex. Using actual code would
result in large examples with a great deal of detail that would distract
from the underlying concepts. By using more idealized examples, the
focus can remain on the important issues around any particular
technique.

9
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