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(Ebook) Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty by Ron Aharoni ISBN 9789814602945, 9814602949 Available Full Chapters

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Mathematics, Poetry
and Beauty
This page intentionally left blank
Mathematics, Poetry
and Beauty

Ron Aharoni
Technion, Haifa, Israel

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TA I P E I • CHENNAI
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data


Aharoni, Ron.
[Matematikah, shirah ve-yofi. English]
Mathematics, poetry, and beauty / Ron Aharoni, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Israel.
pages cm
ISBN 978-9814602938 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-9814602945 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Mathematical recreations. 2. Mathematics--Study and teaching. 3. Poetry in mathematics education.
I. Title.
QA95.A27413 2014
510--dc23
2014026663

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data


A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Hebrew edition: Matematika, shira veyofi (Hakibbutz Hameuchad Publishing, Tel Aviv, 2008)

Translators for the English edition: Merav Aharoni and Edward Levin

Copyright © 2015 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.


All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to
be invented, without written permission from the publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center,
Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from
the publisher.

Typeset by Stallion Press


Email: [email protected]

Printed in Singapore
Contents

Introduction: Magic 1

Mathematics and Poetry 3

Displacement 7

Part I: Order 13

The Curious Case of the Ants on the Pole 15

Hidden Order 19

To Discover or to Invent 25

Order and Beauty 29

Mathematical Harmonies 31

Why 2 is Not a Rational Number 39

The Real Numbers 41

The Miracle of Order 45

Simple Conjectures, Complex Proofs 51

Independent Events 61

v
vi Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

Part II: How Mathematicians and Poets Think 65

Poetic Image, Mathematical Image 67

The Power of the Oblique 77

Compression 85

Mathematical Ping-Pong 89

The Book in Heaven 95

Poetical Ping-Pong 99

Laws of Conservation 103

An Idea from Somewhere Else 111

Three Types of Mathematics 115

Topology 123

Matchmaking 129

Imagination 135

A Magic Number 143

Reality or Imagination 149

Unexpected Combinations 155

What is Mathematics? 159

Deep Tautologies 165

Symmetry 169
Contents vii

Impossibility 179

Infinitely Large 185

Cantor’s Story 189

The Most Beautiful Proof? 199

Paradoxes and Oxymorons 205

Self-Reference and Gödel’s Theorem 211

Halfway to Infinity: Large Numbers 219

Infinitely Small 223

Infinitely Many Numbers Having a Finite Sum 229

Twists 233

Part III: Two Levels of Perception 235

Knowing without Knowing 237

Content and Husk 239

Change 243

Estrangement 247

An Endless Encounter 251

Appendix A: Mathematical Fields 255

Appendix B: Sets of Numbers 257

Appendix C: Poetical Mechanisms Mentioned in the Book 259


Mathematics and Poetry

Poetry is the expression of the imagination. In it


diverse things are brought together in harmony
instead of being separated through analysis.

Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet, 1792–1822, Defence of Poetry

Mathematics is concerned with understanding


the differences between similar things, and
what is shared by different things.

James Joseph Sylvester, English mathematician, 1814–1897

The moving power of mathematical invention


is not reasoning but imagination.

Augustus de Morgan, English mathematician, 1806–1871


The great German mathematician David Hilbert (1862–1943) noticed that
one of his students had started missing his lectures. When he asked for the
reason, he was told that the student had left mathematics in favor of poetry.
“Ah, yes,” said Hilbert, “I always thought he didn’t have enough imagination
for mathematics.”
Hilbert’s derision of poets should be taken with a grain of salt. After all,
his attitude toward physicists was not much better: he once declared that
“physics is too hard for physicists.” But he was not the only one who com-
pared mathematicians with poets, in favor of the first. Voltaire, for example,
said that “there was more imagination in the head of Archimedes than in
that of Homer.” Even poets agree. The American poet Edna St. Vincent
Millay entitled one of her sonnets “Euclid Alone Has Looked on Beauty
Bare.”

3
4 Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

This poses a riddle. How can the austere and abstract world of mathe-
matics resemble art? What does geometry have in common with music, or
arithmetic with poetry? One answer is that both mathematics and poetry
search for hidden patterns.

This poem is a poem on people;


What they think and what they want
And what they think they want.
Besides this, there aren’t many things in the world
That we should care about.

Nathan Zach, “Intro to a Poem,” from Other Poems


A poem tells us what we really want. And what poetry does to human
emotions and cravings, mathematics does to order in the material world. It
tries to find the internal logic of things.
But this cannot be the full answer. Every science, exact or not, looks for
rules underlying external appearances. What is it about mathematics that
makes it more akin to poetry than any other science? There is another, more
prominent common feature that makes us feel that mathematics and poetry
are close: beauty. Nothing is as practical as mathematics. Our everyday life,
which is so dependent on scientific progress, is influenced by mathematics in
very tangible ways. This, however, is not the secret of its attraction, not for
professional mathematicians, and certainly not for amateurs. Most engage
in it for a completely different reason: its aesthetic value.
In this book, I will try to trace those features and mechanisms that are
common to poetry and mathematics, causing them to share the same type of
beauty. For this purpose, I will have to touch upon that most elusive of philo-
sophical questions — what is beauty? The unique perspective of comparing
two fields may offer a clue. The very fact that poetry and mathematics are
so far apart narrows the scope in which the answer should be sought. It is to
be found in the intersection of the two domains, which is much smaller than
each of them viewed separately. The smaller the overlap between the two
fields, the narrower the area for the common denominator to be searched.
As I said, the answer cannot be simple. But there is one word that
captures its essence: magic. The sense of beauty, in both poetry and
Mathematics and Poetry 5

mathematics, is the outcome of a sleight of hand aimed at concealing what


is really happening. Here, for example, is definite magic — one of the poems
entitled “Time and Eternity” by Emily Dickinson:

Adrift! A little boat adrift!


And night is coming down!
Will no one guide a little boat
Unto the nearest town?

So sailors say, on yesterday,


Just as the dusk was brown,
One little boat gave up its strife,
And gurgled down and down.

So angels say, on yesterday,


Just as the dawn was red,
One little boat, o’erspent with gales
Retrimmed its masts — redecked its sails —
And shot — exultant one!

What makes this poem so effective is its sincerity. Through it Dickinson


lays herself bare in a way she wouldn’t even dream of doing in real life.
“Adrift,” “gave up its strife,” “little,” “o’erspent with gales” — all these
describe her life as succinctly as possible, but she probably wouldn’t say
these words aloud even to herself. It is the metaphor that makes it possible
for her to express all these with such courage. The message is conveyed to
the reader only on a subliminal level. The effect is knowing, without really
knowing. The poem is telling us something deep without our being fully
aware of its meaning. A poem is a pickpocket who instead of stealing, puts
something in our pocket without us noticing.
No less powerful is the uncovering of a hidden truth. “Poetry is always
a search for the truth,” were Franz Kafka’s words to which we shall yet
return. The poem tells us that what is on the surface is only one aspect of
reality. The inner forces are of greater importance. Beneath the little boat
overwhelmed by the tempest there is a very brave vessel; and even if it looks
like it is about to sink, it spreads its sails and takes off. Could Dickinson’s
own life be depicted more beautifully than this?
6 Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

Emily Dickinson (1830–1886).

So, this book is about the magic of poetry and of mathematics, and how
close the two are. It is divided into three parts. Part I is about order. We
shall see in it how both fields uncover deep hidden patterns. In Part II we
shall study common techniques of the two fields. Finally, in Part III I will
try to draw conclusions on the concept of beauty.
But first, I want to give a glimpse of what’s to come. I would like to
describe one sleight of hand.
Displacement

The mechanism I want to discuss is common not only to poetry and to


mathematics. It appears in almost every area of human thought. Its name,
“displacement,” was coined by Sigmund Freud, who discovered it in dreams.
Displacement is the diversion of attention from a central figure to a side
one. The main character of the play is shunted to the murky edges of the
stage, while the spotlights focus on a less important figure. The main idea
is thereby presented incidentally, as if offhandedly. In dreams, so claimed
Freud, the aim is to conceal some forbidden content, letting the message slip
the attention of our inhibitions. This, according to Freud, is the aim of all
dream techniques. In mathematics and in poetry the effect is beauty. It is
a magician’s ruse, telling his audience “Look at what I am doing with my
right hand” while performing the trick with his left.
Here is an example in a poem, “About Myself” by the Israeli poetess
Lea Goldberg. It is an ars poetic poem (“ars” is the Latin word for “art”),
meaning that its topic is the poetry of its author. Goldberg examines the
connection between her poetry and her life, and reaches a painful conclusion:

[. . .]
My images are
Transparent like windows in a church:
Through them
One can see
How the light of the sky shifts
And how my loves
Fall
Like dying birds.

Lea Goldberg, “About Myself,” Lea Goldberg:


Selected Poetry and Drama, trans.
Rachel Tzvia Back

7
8 Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

The most transparent stratagem of this poem is the metaphor. In fact, it is a


second-order one, a metaphor within a metaphor. The poems are compared to
images, and the images, in turn, are likened to church windows. But the heart
of the poem is in its last three lines, in which the poetess tells with painful sin-
cerity of the fate of her loves. I live in my poems, she divulges, while in reality,
my loves fall dead — a complaint that accompanied Goldberg throughout her
life. Moreover, she hints that the two are connected, that the loves die because
of the poems. Isn’t it that the birds smash against the windows?
Sincerity by itself, however, does not produce beauty, and if the message
were presented directly, the poem would not be as moving. The last lines,
which deliver a blow to the stomach, penetrate our armor mainly because
we are unprepared. And the poem’s way of achieving this is the inciden-
tal, offhanded statement of the message. The birds-loves as if serve only to
exemplify the transparency of the windows. The dead loves are presented as
a mere illustration of something else. This is displacement.
Displacement, like all incidental communication of powerful emotions, has
great force. The reader feels as if he were being brushed by a feather, not
being sure if it touched him or not, which makes him shiver, as every good
poem should do.

Lea Goldberg (1911–1970); Born in Kovno, Lithuania; Immigrated to Israel in 1935.

When a straight line meets a polygon

In mathematics, and in science in general, a change of perspective is often the


key to the solution of a problem. The role of displacement here is different
from that in poetry. It is not meant to disguise the message, but to cast
Displacement 9

things in a new light. However, the sensation of beauty is generated the


same way. In both mathematics and poetry, the secret is that the message
is not completely understood. Things happen too fast. The idea is so new
that at first encounter it is not consciously absorbed.
Here is an example. Look at the hexagon in the picture. It is not convex,
that is, it has cavities. In the illustration, a straight line meets all six sides.

A six-sided polygon (a hexagon), with a straight line that intersects all its sides. Can you
also draw a seven-sided polygon (a heptagon), with a straight line intersecting all its
sides?

When a mathematician asks you to perform a task, chances are that he


is pulling your leg. It is likely that the mission is impossible. If you try (and
I suggest trying to actually feel this hands-on), you will quickly realize that
it cannot be done. Why? One way to see this is by change of perspective.
The question begins with a polygon, and asks you to construct a straight
line that will meet all its sides. Try the opposite: begin with the straight
line, and try to draw the polygon.
Before presenting the solution, let me formulate the principle on which
it is based. It is called the “river crossing principle.” An even number of
crossings of a river brings you back to the original bank, and an odd number
of crossings takes you to the other side.
By this rule I could know, for example, whether I went through the door of
my office an even or odd number of times (my office is located on the sixth floor,
and I can’t enter or leave it through the window). I don’t know what this num-
ber is, but I am certain that it is even: every time that I entered, I also went out
(these lines are being written outside the office). As simple as this principle may
appear, it is at the heart of many profound mathematical theorems.
So, let us draw the straight line, and then try to draw the heptagon. Let
us start at point Q and proceed along the sides of the broken line. How many
times will we cross the straight line on the way? Seven times, of course, since
each of the seven sides crosses the straight line. Since 7 is odd, by the river
crossing rule the heptagon must end on the other side of the straight line, not
10 Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

on the side on which it began. That is, it ends on the side opposite Q. But
since the heptagon is closed, it should end at Q. This contradiction means
that the assumption that every side of the heptagon intersects the straight
line is impossible.

After seven crossings, we are on the other side of the river. The polygon is not closed.

How Many Games Are There in a Knockout


Tournament?

A knockout tournament is a competition in which the players are paired off.


Each pair competes and the winner advances to the next round.
Question: How many games will be played in a tournament with
16 players?
In the first round, the 16 players are arranged in 8 pairs, 8 games are
played, and the 8 winning players go on to the next round. These 8 players
are arranged in 4 pairs, and will play 4 games. In the third round, there
will be 2 games, and in the fourth, that will determine the champion, only
1 game. The total number of games is therefore 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 15.
The number 16 is a power of 2 — it is 24 , that is, 2× 2× 2× 2. As a result,
in each round all the players can be paired off. But a tournament can also
be held with a number of players that is not a power of 2. In such a case,
in some rounds there will be an odd number of players, and they cannot all
play. When this happens, the players are paired off except for a single player,
and the extra player advances to the next round without playing. How many
games will be held then?
A secret shared between mathematicians and poets is thinking in concrete
examples. Mathematicians also know that the simpler the example is, the
better. There is no such thing as a “too simple example.” The simplest
example here is that of a single player. In this case, the number of games
is 0. In the next simplest example, a competition with 2 players, there is a
single game. When there are 3 players, 2 games are held: a game between a
Displacement 11

pair, followed by game between the winner of the first round and the player
who was waiting on the sidelines. Let us now skip to a tournament with 10
players. The following diagram depicts a possible course of events. In the
first round 5 games were played; in the second, 2; in the third, 1; and in the
fourth, again 1.

Together: 5 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 9. This is not very hard, but in the case of


1000 players, the calculation will be tiring. Is there an easier way? Note that
in all cases we met, the number of games equaled the number of players,
minus 1. Is this coincidental? Almost certainly not. It is probably a rule:
the number of games is smaller by 1 than the number of players.
A good conjecture is essential, but it requires proof. And the proof here
is done by change of perspective. Instead of looking at the winners, look at
the losers. When there are 1000 players, each of the 999 players who did
not win the cup lost exactly once: there was exactly one game in which he
dropped out. Since each game has exactly one loser, for 999 players to lose,
there must be 999 games.
12 Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

The solution leaves us with a sense of beauty. It was economical — it


saved effort. It was concise, like a good poem. And there was magic. Things
happened fast, too fast for us to fully comprehend at first encounter. Like in
Lea Goldberg’s poem, the message was slipped under our noses, our attention
having been drawn to something else. Judging by the examples so far, a sense
of beauty is born in the unconscious grasp of a notion. We experience beauty
when we receive a strong message, whether emotional or intellectual, while
comprehending it only subliminally.
The Curious Case
of the Ants on the Pole

Only about myself did I know how to speak.


My world is as narrow as that of an ant.

Rachel Bluwstein, Israeli poetess, 1890–1931

There is an unknown number of ants on a one-meter long pole. The ants


move — some to the right, others to the left, but all at the same speed:
exactly one meter a minute. The pole is narrow, about as wide as a single
ant, and when two ants meet they cannot continue. They then behave like
colliding billiard balls, that is, each turns about and continues in the opposite
direction, at the same speed.

When two ants meet (left) they change direction (right).

Every so often, an ant reaches one of the pole ends, and then it falls off
and disappears forever.
Question: In the end, will all the ants fall off the pole? If so, how long will
this take?
At first glance, the answer seems to depend on the initial state, that is,
on the number of ants on the pole and their position. If there are many
ants, it seems that it might take a long time for all of them to fall off.
How can we test this? I have already told you the first secret of thinking
mathematically: studying examples. Mathematical thought is a play between
examples and abstractions. The difference between the two is that strokes in
the direction of the concrete can be done consciously, that is, examples can
be evoked deliberately. For this reason one ought to begin with examples.
An additional reason, of course, is that examples are the raw material of

15
16 Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

abstraction. In the case of the ants, the simplest example is that of a single
ant. If the ant is at one end of the pole and goes toward the other end, it
will fall off in one minute. In any other case, it will fall in less than a minute.
But we still have not touched upon the core of the problem: the collisions. So
let us look at two ants, located at the opposite ends of the pole, advancing
toward each other.

After half a minute, they will meet in the middle of the pole, reverse
their directions, and fall off in another half a minute. So, both will fall after
exactly one minute.
The next example is a bit less obvious. Imagine one ant starting at the
right end, the other exactly in the middle, and they are advancing toward
each other.

The ants will meet after a quarter of a minute at a distance of a quarter of


a meter from the right end. They will reverse their directions, and then the
last ant to fall will be the ant on the left, that will fall after three quarters
of a minute. After exactly one minute, both ants will have fallen.
This is starting to look strange. In all three examples, all ants fell off the
pole within one minute. Let us go up one level of complexity higher, and
examine three ants. Consider the case where ant A starts from the left end,
and moves to the right; ant B starts from the middle and moves to the right;
and ant C starts at the right end and moves to the left.

After a quarter of a minute we shall see the following picture:


The Curious Case of the Ants on the Pole 17

After the collision, ants A and B will go towards each other, meet in the
middle after another quarter of a minute, reverse their directions and each
will fall after another half a minute. Ant C will had fallen from the right end
even before that. Again, it will take a total of one minute for all ants to fall.
Now this is really strange. In all our examples, all the ants fell within a
minute. Does this always hold true? The answer is “yes,” and the proof
is easy. That is, if you have the right insight. Strange as it may seem,
this insight does not add information but ignores information: it ignores
the identity of the ants. If we don’t care who the ants are, then what
happens at the moment two ants meet? Actually, nothing. Before their
meeting, one ant goes to the left, and the other to the right; after their
encounter, the exact same thing happens: then too, one ant proceeds to
the left, and the other to the right, at the same speed. But for our pur-
pose, which ant goes to the left and which goes to the right doesn’t
matter.
So in effect, there are no collisions. They were only there to confuse us.
The problem is completely identical to the problem: “ants are proceeding
along a one meter long pole, each at the speed of one meter per minute,
without colliding and without changing direction. How long will it take for
them to fall?” There is no mystery here. All will fall off in one minute
or less.
Mathematicians are a lucky breed. They get paid to play. When we take
into account the billions that are invested in mathematical research and edu-
cation, we would expect them to be busy with applied projects. In reality,
most mathematician allow themselves to indulge in problems like this one.
Why? Because the impractical appearance of this riddle is misleading. In
fact, it is a good example of the discipline’s primary strength: abstraction.
The ants in the problem are mathematical: real ants do not move at a uni-
form speed, and do not obey such simple rules. Mathematics is the study
of systems that follow well defined rules. And the abstraction is even more
evident in the solution, that strips the situation of its details, and exposes
its essence.
Ignoring the irrelevant, as in the ants problem, is a primary characteristic
of mathematical thought. Mathematics takes the abstraction process to its
extreme. It takes a complex looking tree, strips it of its leaves, and reveals
the trunk. Think, for example, of the concept of number. The person who
invented the number “4” understood that, as far as the rules of arithmetic
are concerned, it is immaterial if he had 4 stones or 4 pencils, what color
they are, and how they are arranged. 4 stones and 3 stones are 7 stones,
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