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 anu koivunen

Performative Histories,
Foundational Fictions
Gender and Sexuality in Niskavuori Films

Studia Fennica
Historica
The Finnish Literature Society (SKS) was founded in 1831 and has,
from the very beginning, engaged in publishing operations. It nowadays publishes
literature in the fields of ethnology and folkloristics, linguistics, literary
research and cultural history.
The first volume of the Studia Fennica series appeared in 1933. Since 1992,
the series has been divided into three thematic subseries: Ethnologica,
Folkloristica and Linguistica. Two additional subseries were formed
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folklore and literary collections, a research library and promotes Finnish literature abroad.

Studia fennica editorial board

Anna-Leena Siikala
Rauno Endén
Teppo Korhonen
Pentti Leino
Auli Viikari
Kristiina Näyhö

Editorial Office
SKS
P.O. Box 259
FI-00171 Helsinki
www.finlit.fi
Anu Koivunen

Performative Histories,
Foundational Fictions
Gender and Sexuality in Niskavuori Films

Finnish Literature Society · Helsinki

Studia Fennica Historica 7

The publication has undergone a peer review.

The open access publication of this volume has received part funding via
Helsinki University Library.

© 2003 Anu Koivunen and SKS

License CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International

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List of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

INTRODUCTION: PERFORMATIVE FRAMINGS,

FOUNDATIONAL FICTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Prologue: from Niskavuori to Tara. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Public fantasies across the cultural screen: questions and
aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Exploring the “given-to-be-seen”: the theory. . . . . . . . . . . 14
Performativity and film studies: the background . . . . . . . . 19
Interpretive framings, narrative images: the method . . . . . 24
The roots and routes of Niskavuori: the intermedial
framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The sites of framing: the research material. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Outline of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

THE ARCHIVE – NISKAVUORI AS HERITAGE

AND HEIMAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Anathema to history? Niskavuori films in the
televisual age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Versions of history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Television as a history machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
A heritage experience: Niskavuori (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
The making of national cinema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Museum aesthetics: simulating heritage . . . . . . . . . 71
Remembering Heimat: post-war Niskavuori films . . . . . . . 80
History or memory: Niskavuori Fights (1957) . . . . 82
Blut und Boden: Aarne Niskavuori (1954) . . . . . . . 88
Picturing the homeland: Loviisa (1946)
and Aarne Niskavuori (1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Heimat as history and memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
In the beginning there was history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5
THE MONUMENT-WOMAN: MATRON, MOTHER,
MATRIARCH, AND MONSTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
A modern monument to tradition:
The Women of Niskavuori (1938) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
The power and persistence of tradition . . . . . . . . . . 119
The secret warmth underneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Monumental, memorial, museal – modern . . . . . . . 129
The monumental “Finnish woman” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
The making of the monument, or
becoming-a-woman in Loviisa (1946). . . . . . . . . . . 134
The “Finnish woman”: peasant, national, and
feminist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Mother Earth: Aarne Niskavuori (1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Matriarch and monster: deconstructing the monument
in the 1950s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Cornerstone of the propertied class . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Masculine women, pathological “(s)mothers”. . . . . 166
Power-figures and she-devils: Louhi, Loviisa, and
Heta Niskavuori (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
From doubling to splitting: postulating authorial
intentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
A rye dynasty: matron or mafioso?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Parodic reiterations: Pohjavuorelaisia (1972) . . . . . 188
Seductions of the monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

THE MAN-IN-CRISIS: FROM THE WEAK MAN TO THE

SUBJECT OF HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Protect the Finnish man! Aarne and Juhani Niskavuori
in the age of television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
The unhappy Oedipus in The Women of Niskavuori
(1938). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Half peasant, half gentleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The sovereign man: Tauno Palo as the spectacular lover. . 225
Rehabilitating manhood: The prodigal son and
the missing father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Niskavuori is a male tragedy! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Akusti as the missing father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
The Subject of history: The narrative re-focalization
in the 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

SEXUAL POLITICS: PASSION, REPRESSION,

AND TRANSGRESSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Reading against the grain: reading repression
in the 1990s and 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
The decades of innocence and the stubborn drive . . 254
The gendered and classed grammar of nation . . . . . . . . . . 262
Malviina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Siipirikko, the Broken-Winged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

6
 Steward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
The first reception: The Women of Niskavuori (1936,
1938) and the cultural crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
A drama of ideas or a marital drama? . . . . . . . . . . . 276
A new woman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
The hysterical wife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
The fallen peasant and other scandals: re-viewing
the censorship debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Appropriating censorship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
The lure of lyricism, or the cinematic sex appeal . . 297
Passion without politics? Readings of Niskavuori
as soap opera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Haunting signatures: framing the authorial legend. . . . . . . 313

RE-CITABLE LEGACIES, MELODRAMATIC PLEASURES 316

Re-citable legacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Melodramatic pleasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary research material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Appendix 1: Niskavuori films (1938—1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Appendix 2: The Niskavuori story on radio and television
(1945–2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Appendix 3: Niskavuori plays in theatres (1936—2000) . . . . . . . . . 359
Appendix 4: Review journalism and articles in newspapers,
popular magazines and trade press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Appendix 5: Archival sources (trailers, posters, programme leaflets,
pr-material). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 406
Appendix 6: Other published material on Hella Wuolijoki and
Niskavuori plays and films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Appendix 7: List of audiovisual citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

7
8
Acknowledgements

The research for this book was funded by the Gender System Graduate
School and conducted in the Department of Cinema and TV Studies (later
Media Studies) at the University of Turku. The final stages of this book were
completed at the Christina Institute for Women’s Studies at the University
of Helsinki. I am grateful to all these institutions for their support during
this period.
I owe more than I can possibly acknowledge to my supervisor and friend
Astrid Söderbergh Widding. I thank her for showing faith in my work and
supporting me in my decision to write in English. I continue to marvel at her
efficiency and invincible e-mail manners, and I am deeply moved by her joy
in seeing this project completed! I also owe special thanks to Aili Nenola
who gave me valuable support and advice when needed.
My readers, Marcia Landy and Leena-Maija Rossi, provided me with astute
and reassuring comments on the manuscript which helped me sharpen my
arguments and I send them my warmest thanks. Marcia Landy’s insightful
work on the cinematic uses of history has been an important incentive for
my research. In December 2002, reading Leena-Maija’s manuscript on TV
commercials inspired me to finalize this book, and her generous offer to read
my work gave me a deadline. Her offer, rather than just the return of a favour,
was a gift for which I will forever be grateful! I also wish to thank Christine
Geraghty for accepting the responsibility of opponentship and Seija Ridell
for standing as the custos.
This book has been a long time in the making and over that time, many
treasured friends and colleagues have offered me help and support. As a
true act of collegiality, Tutta Palin took time to read the whole manuscript
and gave me encouraging feedback, spurring my thinking. Harri Kalha,
Marianne Liljeström, Hannu Nieminen, Susanna Paasonen, Mari Pajala, Eeva
Raevaara, Kirsi Saarikangas, Hannu Salmi, and Antu Sorainen commented
parts of the manuscript and offered me helpful advice. I would also like to
thank collectively all those who have responded to my work at seminars and
professional conferences.
I am deeply grateful to my colleagues at the Christina Institute for Women’s
Studies – Aili, Leena-Maija, Eeva, Kirsi, Tuija Pulkkinen, Pia Purra, Aino-
Maija Hiltunen, Katja Nordlund, and Maija Urponen – for support, goodwill,
champagne, great laughs, and new friendships. It was a pleasure working with

9
you! Earlier, the Gender System Graduate School gave me the opportunity
to conduct a large empirical study, to immerse myself in theoretical issues
concerning gender and nationality, and to learn from others’ projects.
For inspiration, I owe special thanks to Annette Kuhn, Mick Dillon, and
Scott Wilson who enabled my stay as a visiting scholar at the Institute for
Cultural Research at Lancaster University in 2000–2001.The stimulating
intellectual environment at the ICR and the Institute for Women’s Studies has
had a lasting impact on my thinking. As valued friends and brilliant scholars,
Sara Ahmed, Claudia Castañeda, Anne-Marie Fortier, Sarah Franklin, Hilary
Graham, Maureen McNeil, Jackie Stacey, and Imogen Tyler have given me
inspiration and challenged me to rethink many issues, revitalizing my belief
in academic work and the importance of feminist collegiality. I also want to
express gratitude to Richard Dyer, Tytti Soila, and Eeva Jokinen for their
encouragement and kindness.
Sarah Schauss consulted my English with skill, promptness, and patience,
and Harri Kalha, in the manner of a true enthusiast, spent several afternoons
with me polishing quotes from 1930s–1940s film journals. Päivi Valotie
catalogued my review archive with her usual precision and efficiency and
alerted me to new Niskavuori references. Erkki Tuomioja generously granted
me access to the Hella Wuolijoki collections at the National Archives, and
Kari Kyrönseppä provided me with the manuscript and photos of Pohjavuo-
relaisia. Juha Herkman, Raija Ojala, Markku Rönty, Kari Takala, and Teija
Sopanen shared valuable information with me. I am grateful to them all.
I would also like to thank the Finnish Historical Society and the Finnish
Literature Society for publishing my work in the Bibliotheca Historica series,
and Rauno Endén for his assistance in getting the book printed.
Over the course of my research, I have consulted numerous libraries and
archives and received generous help from their staff. Thanks are due, in
particular, to Olavi Similä, Timo Matoniemi, Mari Kiiski, and Hannu Ylinen
at the Finnish Film Archive (SEA); Richard Creutz, Riitta Kontula,Soili
Lehti, Anja-Maija Leppänen, Seija Pajanne, and Marja-Liisa Vesanto at the
National Broadcasting Company (YLE); Pälvi Laine and Emilia Niittymäki
at the Theatre Museum (Teatterimuseo); Titta Ylinen at the Finnish Theatre
Information Centre (TINFO); Sirpa Seppänen at the Central Archives for
Finnish Business Records (ELKA); and Pirkko Kari at the Finnish Film
Foundation (SES).
I thank my parents Ritva and Lasse Koivunen for always being there for me
as well as for their financial assistance. However, I am most indebted to Mari
Koivunen and Marianne Liljeström. The fabulous and amazing sister she is,
Mari always makes me laugh. Reading chapters and checking footnotes and
bibliographies, she even saw me through the final stages of this manuscript.
For her warmth, sense of humour, and unfailing support, I want to express
my gratitude to Marianne. To paraphrase an acknowledgement I once read
and will always remember, Marianne lived with this project for a long time
and learned not to say a word about it.

Helsinki, 26 June 2003

Anu Koivunen

10
Introduction: Performative Framings,
Foundational Fictions

Prologue: from Niskavuori to Tara

“[Hella] Wuolijoki’s important position in Finnish drama stems from the
series of five plays about the iskavuori estate and its passionate o ners.
The story of the omen born out of the earth of Tavastlandia in Central
Finland has its background partly in reality, in the history of the family at
the Wuolijoki estate in Sahalahti, Finland. As drama, the iskavuori epic
represents the essence of the Finnish rural melodrama. The core of the story
deals ith a conflict bet een the fulfilment of duties and giving ay for love.
The story-line is built upon several generations of strong omen ho carry
on their shoulders the responsibility of the estate, its people and its traditions
hile their men are absent.
This [setup] goes against the grain of the mainstream melodrama in
hich the female character in the first place is seen and not heard. o matter
hether the iskavuori men are in the city escaping from their responsibilities
or in public service, they al ays seem to be consumed by a craving for the
unattainable. The omen, in ( ) turn, stay at home, immutably rooted in the
earth, and lace up their corsets in order to face the day, and control their
emotions, hich can only be traced in the scant retorts and the skilful mimicry
of the actresses.”1

With these eloquent words, ordic ational Cinemas (1998) introduces the
series of seven Niskavuori films (1938–1984) to an international readership.
The quoted paragraphs – and the mere presence of these films in this particular
context of packaging national cinemas into comparable products – suggest
that the films in question enjoy a special status in their country of origin.
What is more, the book’s description summarizes what in the Finnish context
can be termed as the common sense of the Niskavuori films, pulling together
several threads of their long-standing and continuing reception. First, the
quote frames the films as anchored “in reality” as it connects them with the
biography of the female playwright Hella Wuolijoki on whose five plays

1 Soila 1998, 62.

11
(1936–1953) the films are based.2 Wuolijoki’s persona, her family history,
and political activism have always loomed large in public discourses around
Niskavuori plays and films. In this quote, the biography is linked to a specific
place and region, Häme (Tavastlandia), which is both the region where
Hella Wuolijoki had relatives through her marriage, the narrative landscape
of the Niskavuori family, and in the nationalist imaginings, a privileged
locus of Finnishness since the early 19th century. Second, the quote frames
the Niskavuori films in terms of gender history, anchoring them firmly in a
woman-centred and feminist point of view. In implying a parallel between the
fictional world and the history of Finnish women, it reiterates another common
narrative offered since the 1930s, women shouldering the household burden
while men worked (in forestry, on the railroad and in log floating companies)
or waged wars. An emphasis on the distinctive “power” and “strength” of
Finnish women is an inherent feature of this reading. The source of this
narrative – and, by implication, also the origin of a specific gender discourse
featuring “strong women” and “weak men” – is located within a past, pre-
modern, agrarian world. Third, the quote employs mythological language
and folkloric notions of genesis in characterizing the Niskavuori women as
“born out of the earth of Tavastlandia” or as “rooted in the earth”. Through
these expressions, the quote enacts a reading of the films and characters as
place- and soil-bound; it suggests that the representations be seen as more
“authentic” or “essential”, as less mediated or fabricated than some other
representations. In addition, this reading evokes a folkloric narration. It
establishes links to national mythology (the Kalevala as the Finnish “national
epic”) and, hence, implies that the story of the Niskavuori family not only
retrieves the linear time of history, but also a mythical timelessness of
repetition and monumentality. Indeed, the matrons of the Niskavuori farm
are recurrently termed “monumental” and described through metaphors of
trees and stones. Fourth, the quote places the Niskavuori films within the
framework of melodrama and, thus, reiterates earlier readings of the Niska-
vuori saga in terms of affective impact, as well as recent readings of Niska-
vuori in terms of soap opera narration. Interestingly, there is no contradiction
between the “realist” content (Niskavuori as history) and the melodramatic
narration. In this reading, on the contrary, the melodramatic mode, i.e., the
manner in which strong emotions are concealed yet visible as traces in camera
movements (“scant retorts”) or “skilful mimicry” [sic] appears as an essential
counterpart to the history as it is articulated in Niskavuori films. Indeed, the
melodramatic mode is a key element in this image of a Finnish mentality.
Fifth and lastly, as the quote does not differentiate between the Niskavuori
plays and Niskavuori films, but speaks of them as one, the films are framed
as inherently intertextual or, rather, intermedial. In this respect, the quote also
reiterates earlier readings: promotional publicity around films has referred
to theatre productions, and theatre reviews have commented on films. For

2 In this book, I subsequently spell “Wuolijoki” following Hella Wuolijoki’s own usage.
In my sources, however both “Wuolijoki” and “Vuolijoki” appear, and when quoting, I
follow the original.

12
almost 70 years, the story of the Niskavuori family has been “everywhere”
in Finnish culture: in 168 productions in professional theatres, in thousands
of performances, in innumerable amateur productions in summer theatres or
theatre clubs, in seven feature film adaptations, in forty screenings on TV, in
seventeen radio plays, in three television dramas, and even in a ballet. As a
result, it has become virtually impossible to differentiate between copies and
originals or to single out one text. In every singular production or reading,
numerous others have been present.
The above cited quote, like any other discussion of the films, cites, repeats,
and re-assembles an array of previous readings of the Niskavuori saga, which
have been articulated, established, and recycled in countless advertisement
slogans, promotional texts, stills, posters, trailers, film reviews, and scholarly
commentaries since the 1930s. Over the past decades, these framings have,
to varying degrees, emphasized a reality-effect (vraisemblance), cultural
and national imaginary (“Finnish mentality”), regionalism (Häme), folkloric
elements (connections to national mythology), melodramatic narration
(desires, passions, repression), and the playwright and her biography (family
history, political activism) as key interpretive matrices that account for the
Niskavuori saga and explain its continuing popularity. In its final sentence,
the book quote performs yet another important interpretive move; it refers
to Gone ith the Wind (Victor Fleming, 1939), one of the most famous
Hollywood melodramas ever, and quite specifically to the well-known scene
where the black Mammy (Hattie McDaniel) is dressing Scarlet O’Hara
(Vivien Leigh). This intertextual reference is intriguing in many senses. It
illustrates a pleasure taken in the films in question: it suggests that viewing
Niskavuori films provides enjoyment comparable to that experienced when
watching Gone ith the Wind. In addition, it associates Niskavuori films
with women’s popular pleasures, implying that women, in particular, might
enjoy the films. The reference is particularly interesting also because it, in
fact, is an incorrect figure of speech, a slip; In Niskavuori, unlike in Tara,
neither the waistline nor the underwear of the matrons is ever an issue – in
the films, neither Loviisa nor Heta Niskavuori are ever shown to “lace up
their corsets”. They do tie up their aprons, but corsets they lace up only in
the minds of audiences, the intertextually knowledgeable and imaginative
spectators.
This kind of imaginary re-membering of images, this linking and layering
of two separate texts, exhibited in the quote is, however, nothing exceptional
in the history of the reception of the Niskavuori saga. Instead, it is a vital
component of all reading and viewing as an activity of framing. Evoking
intertextual frameworks (folklore, media, genre, and iconography) and
anchoring films or images at specific discursive fields (gender, sexuality,
nation, and history) are key mechanisms of this performative process,
which can be termed interpretive framing. In this process, films are given
significance in relation to other texts and in terms of cultural discourses.
Through and ith the legacies of these different interpretive framings, Niska-
vuori films are given meanings, watched, and talked about. And through
the interpretive framings, Niskavuori films have become constituents of
“the cultural screen” (Silverman 1996) and achieved the status of “public

13
fantasies” (de Lauretis 1999). Moreover, through the interpretive work,
through reiterated readings, “Niskavuori” has become a sign that, in the
cultural imaginary, articulates notions of history, nation, and gender. Like the
frame around a painting or the edges of a book, the interpretive framings are
not something external to the films – a coil or a coating to be removed in order
to uncover “the film itself” – but constitutive of them as cultural artefacts.

Public fantasies across the cultural screen: uestions and aims

“It seems to me crucial that we insist upon the ideological status of the
screen by describing it as that culturally generated image or repertoire of
images through which subjects are not only constituted but differentiated in
relation to class, race, sexuality, age, and nationality”
Kaja Silverman 1992, 150.

“Popular culture forms have the effect of something deeply felt and
experienced, and yet they are fictional representations. (…) The narratives
inscribed in popular forms and their scenarios or mise-en-scène, complete
with characters, passions, conflicts, and resolutions, may be considered
public fantasies.”
Teresa de Lauretis 1999, 304.

How do films, images, and narratives become coordinates for thinking about
nation, gender, and history? How does a film, an image or a narrative become
incorporated in what Kaja Silverman (1992, 1996) has termed “the cultural
screen” or “the cultural image-repertoire”, the realm of representations that
enables and constraints how we perceive ourselves and others, how we read
images and narratives and what passes for “reality” in any particular context?
How does a film or a group of films operate as public fantasies, moving and
affecting its viewers and functioning as a social technology and a discursive
apparatus, to quote Teresa de Lauretis (1984, 1999)? In this book, I investigate
these questions through a particular case of Finnish cinema: the seven
Niskavuori feature films released between 1938 and 1984. The films include
the two versions of The Women of Niskavuori (Niskavuoren naiset 1938 and
1958, dir. Valentin Vaala), Loviisa (Loviisa 1946, dir. Edvin Laine), Heta
Niskavuori (Niskavuoren Heta 1952, dir. Edvin Laine), Aarne iskavuori
( iskavuoren Aarne 1954, dir. Edvin Laine), Niskavuori Fights (Niskavuori
taistelee 1957, dir. Edvin Laine), and Niskavuori (1984, dir. Matti Kassila).
While the imaginary realm of “Niskavuori” is an intermedial construction,
if anything, my focus in this book is on the films, and more specifically,
their interpretive framings. Instead of reading the films as objects of textual
or narrative analysis, I trace their “diachronic life” and their “post-origin
appearances” (Klinger 1997) and attempt to take seriously the notion of film
reception in time. Hence, I explore the historicity as well as the intertextuality
and intermediality of meaning-making: the ways in which the films have
been read and framed for further readings in contexts of cinema, television,
theatre, and radio; in and through promotional publicity (posters, ads, lobby
cards, publicity-stills, trailers, features), review journalism, and critical

14
commentary. In this respect, the two key concepts in this study are framing
(Klinger 1994; see Derrida 1987; Culler 1983, 1988; Bal 1991; 1999) and
performativity (Butler 1990a, 1993, 1997; Bhabha 1991; 1994a; Bell 1999),
which both refer to the formation of cultural meaning not as a textually
determined finality, but as a contingent process. Operating with these concepts
as my analytical tools, I scrutinize the processes of citation, repetition, and
recycling, which have sedimented the interpretive repertoires and matrices
through which “Niskavuori” has become an apparently self-evident, stable,
and quotable sign and vehicle for articulating meanings of gender, nation,
and history.3 In my reading, I not only trace the stability, continuity and
sameness characterizing the cultural screen or the public fantasies, but also
the instabilities, differences, contradictions and exclusions inherent in them
(cf. Butler 1992; Silverman 1996). As in my previous work (Koivunen
1995), I approach cinema as inherently dialogical (Bakhtin 1981). Hence,
my approach is informed by Richard Dyer’s (1993, 2) astute guidelines for
analyzing the “matter of images”: “what is re-presented in representation is
not directly reality itself but other representations”, he writes and continues:
“The analysis of images always needs to see how any given instance is
embedded in a network of other instances”. In my understanding, to explore
what Dyer (ibid., 3) calls “the complex, shifting business of re-presenting,
reworking, recombining representations”, is to investigate the dynamics of
the cultural screen or the public fantasies.4
In exploring the cultural screen as a national imaginary, as a projection
of “Finnish gender”,”Finnishness”, and “our history”, I find Judith Butler’s
(1990a, 1993, 1997) account of performativity a compelling analytical frame-
work.5 In my understanding, Butler’s notion of performativity as historicity
enables a critical investigation of the “given-to-be-seen” (Silverman 1996,
122). With this notion, I refer to what seems to contain any reading of
“Niskavuori”: that which “goes-without-saying”, the common sense form
of nationalism-as-narrative (Landy 1996, 19; Layoun 1992, 411; Keränen
1998, 152ff), the massive repetition that characterizes the Niskavuori
phenomenon and its habitual rhetoric of familiarity.6 As “narrating the nation”
(Bhabha 1990; 1994a) does not involve one, but many stories, the lure for

3 Cf. O’Regan 1996, 6, 145ff. Tom O’Regan has studied “Australian national cinema” in
terms of socially meaningful “interpretative protocols”, intertexts, and contexts which
operate in the meaning-making processes. He has identified “repertoires” which, over
time, have become “self-evident, and are un-reflexive, interpretative and creative norms”
(ibid., 160–163).
4 One must mention, however, that Richard Dyer’s approach lacks the psychoanalytic
framework which informs both the notion of cultural screen (in Kaja Silverman’s Lacanian
reading) and the notion of public fantasy (in Teresa de Lauretis’s joining of Gramsci and
Freud). The emphasis on the mattering of representations is, nevertheless, a common
denominator for all approaches.
5 Here I follow Tuija Pulkkinen (1993; 1996) who has suggested that nationality, like gender,
can be conceptualized in terms of performatively constituted identities that enact and effect
what they claim to express or be founded on. See also, for instance, Sneja Gunew (1996,
168–169) and Anne-Marie Fortier (2000, 5–6) who have investigated how ethnicity is
constructed performatively.
6 Cf. Marcia Landy’s (1996) argument on the melodramatic pleasures of repetition.

15
the investigator is to start explaining one story with another according to
what might be called the hermeneutics of the nation. In this approach, the
nation – be it imagined, invented, narrated, or not – is never at stake. On
the contrary, the interiority of what counts as national or Finnish is over and
again confirmed (Koivunen 1998). To avoid this lure, this sense of an over-
whelming and self-explaining familiarity of the context, I take the massive
repetition itself as my object of study and pose genealogical questions in
a “Butlerian spirit”, starting from the present, from the existing readings
and framings and tracing their historical legacies. Even writing in a foreign
language is a part of this project of “defamiliarization”. In the case of the
Niskavuori films, the question is not hether the films are about history,
nation, or gender. On the contrary, these meanings are overt and explicit,
attached to the Niskavuori saga in public framings since the 1930s. Instead,
then, the question here concerns the repetition and its historicity, its contexts
and dynamics. In my approach, I want to underscore dissonances and that
which has been left unnoticed or concealed and, hence, to question that which
appears as mere repetition, continuity, and sameness.
In a genealogical move, then, this book aims to show that what the films
through their framings posit as the basis of representation – and, thus, as the
origin of gender and nationality, i.e., the time and space of the nation – is,
an effect of their representation (Butler 1993, 2). At the same time, this book
draws attention to the fragility of that “basis” by uncovering “historicality”
as an effect of repetition in time, by tracing the divergent meanings and by
locating the unfamiliar and disturbing in the assumed familiarity. As Giuliana
Bruno (1984, 50) has argued, “according to Nietzschean genealogy, what
is found at an historical beginning is not origin but dissention or disparity.
And questioning origin in light of genealogy is to open historical work to
dissention, disparity, and contradiction.”7 While problematizing the notions
of identity, home, and belonging, this approach takes all these concepts very
seriously. The force of performativity is at issue here.8 Even if the emphasis
is on texts and the mode of analysis is deconstructive in spirit, my focus is
on the oft-articulated and “deeply-felt” force, persistence, and compelling
nature of the Niskavuori narrative. (Cf. de Lauretis 1999, 307; Landy 1996,
19.) As Andrew Parker, Mary Russo, Doris Sommer, and Patricia Yaeger
write in their introduction to Nationalisms & Sexualities (1992), to suggest
that a nation is “imaginary” does not “consign it to the category of (mere)
fiction”.9 On the contrary, as Parker and the others state, “if it is a ‘dream’
it is one possessing all the institutional force and affect of the real.” (Parker
et al. 1992, 11–12.) Hence, a question addressed indirectly in this study
concerns the long-standing popularity of the Niskavuori films. I assume

7 Bruno is, here, quoting Foucault (1977, 142) who in “Nietzsche, Genealogy, History”
argues: “What is found at the historical beginning of things is not the inviolable identity
of their origin; it is the dissension of other things. It is disparity.”
8 On the Nietzschean and Foucauldian roots of the concept of force, see Butler 1987/1999,
180–183.
9 In fact, Benedict Anderson (1991, 6–7) develops his concept of “imaginary communities”
in his critique of Ernst Gellner who draws a distinction between “true” and “false” nations.

16
that the popularity of a cultural product like film is dependent, to a large
part, on the diversity and complexity of the issues it opens for discussion.
The capacity of the film to engage its audiences, to touch them, and to move
them is equally important. When examining the interpretive framings in this
study, I also analyze the perceived compelling nature of the Niskavuori films
and try to unpack the citational legacies from which the “binding force” and
affective impact derive.10
Approaching the Niskavuori films from this perspective, I draw on three
fields of study and theoretical discussions that are partly distinct, partly
overlapping. First, my work adds to the 1990s proliferation of studies on
the “popular European cinema” (Dyer & Vincendeau 1992; Eleftheriotis
2001), on “national cinemas” (Kaes 1989; Higson 1989, 2003; Landy 1991,
2000; O’Regan 1996; Street 1997), and on cultural identities and national
narratives (Bhabha 1990, 1994a; Parker et al. 1992; Bammer 1994). While
not aiming to be a book on national cinema, this study involves analyzing
how and what in Niskavuori films has been framed for the nation building
processes, how the Niskavuori films have been framed and cited as images
of “our past”, as indexical evidence of “where- e-come-from”. Following
Doris Sommer (1990), I investigate how the Niskavuori films have become
“foundational fictions” and scrutinize the complex and conflicting attachments
to and investments in “Niskavuori” as a representation of the nation. As I
ground the Niskavuori films via their interpretive framings to specific Finnish
discussions and phenomena, I attempt to reach beyond the national boundaries
and to studies of other European cinemas. Even if the comparison remains a
suggestion, I find it important to question the “indigenous” logic, the effect
of interiority that a focus on “national cinema” often produces. To quote
Andrew Higson (2000a, 36): “Is the national heritage ever really ‘pure’, or
is it always to some extent a cultural collage, an amalgam of overlapping
and sometimes antagonistic traditions, a mix of ingredients from diverse
sources?” (Cf. Hayward 2000, 101; Higson 2000b, 67–68.)
Second, this study is informed by the “turn to history” which characterized
film studies as an academic discipline in the 1990s, as well as by concurrent
debates on cinematic meaning making and the agendas of film historical
research (Bruno 1984; Gunning 1990; Staiger 1992; Stacey 1993; Klinger
1994; Shattuc 1995). On an imaginary continuum where textual analysis
grounded in psychoanalytic theory represents one pole and an ethnographic
or historical study of audiences the other, my study takes a mixed position.
While I problematize the notion of reception and argue for a historicizing,
intertextual, and intermedial approach to reception studies – inspired, in
particular, by Barbara Klinger’s (1994, 1997) and Jane Shattuc’s work
(1995) – I also engage with questions of meaning and with the legacy of
critical theory and post-structuralism. While I explore the “cinematic uses

10 For the cultural construction of emotions, see Abu-Lughod & Lutz 1990, 1–23; Scott 1992,
passim; Cvetkovich 1992, 26–44. On the construction of affect in 1990s costume cinema,
see Pajala 1999.

17
of the past” (Landy 1996), I also trace the way films, narratives, and images
themselves become signifiers of histories.
Thirdly and most significantly, my approach owes to feminist theorizing
of gender, sexuality, and cinema, especially to the work of Kaja Silverman
(1992; 1996) and Teresa de Lauretis (1984; 1987; 1999). Although their
Lacanian (Silverman) and Freudian (de Lauretis) terminology will only
surface in passing in my analysis, their insights into the mattering of
representations, the centrality of visual culture, and cinematic representations
for the construction of a popular imaginary and the cultural screen provide
the raison d’être of the questions I pose. In her notions of cinema as a social
technology (1984, 84–86; 1987, 2–3) and as a public fantasy (1999, 304–308),
Teresa de Lauretis underlines the importance of considering films complex
signifying practices, involving both cognition and affects. In the case of the
Niskavuori films, then, one must explore how the framings have articulated
not only meanings of the films, but also those of history, nation, gender, and
sexuality, and, furthermore, how the films, the images, and the narratives
have become their signifiers. Quoting Antonio Gramsci’s writings on popular
forms, de Lauretis highlights the power of fictional representations to have
the effect of “something deeply felt and experienced” while they function as
“matrices in which thought takes shape out of flux”.11 In emphasizing this
connection between affect and meaning, de Lauretis, in my reading, meets
Silverman (1996, 174, 221) whose notion of the cultural screen highlights
the “representational logic” or the “representational coordinates” which, in
the manner of Michel Foucault’s (1972, 220) “discursive rules” or Judith
Butler’s (1990a, ibid., 151 n.6) “grid of intelligibility”, guide our perceptions,
what we see and what we make of it.12 For this reason, one must study the
interpretive work surrounding Niskavuori images and narratives: Which
representational coordinates are used to frame the films, and how do they
– over time – become coordinates for making meanings in other cultural
texts? What are the connections between the Niskavuori films and the wide
circulation of “Niskavuori” as a sign outside cinema or arts context? Finally,
what kinds of “public fantasies”, “coordinates”, scripts, and schemes do the
films, the images, and the narratives, as parts of the cultural screen provide
and articulate?

11 Teresa de Lauretis (1999, 307) defines public fantasies as ”dominant narratives and
scenarios of the popular imagination” expressed in various cultural texts that ”tell the
story of a people, a nation, or a representative individual (Everyman) and reconstruct
their origin, their struggles, and their achievements”. She argues: “[T]he construction of
a popular imaginary by means of cinematic representations, cinema’s public fantasies,
produces in the spectator structures of cognition as well as feeling, what Gramsci calls
‘matrices in which thought takes shape out of flux,” and these interface and resonate with
the subjective fantasy structures of individual spectators.”
12 ”The screen or cultural image-repertoire inhabits each of us, much as language does. What
this means is that when we apprehend another person or an object, we necessarily do so
via that large, diverse, but ultimately finite range of representational coordinates which
determine what and how the members of our culture see – how they process visual detail,
and what meaning they give it.” (Silverman 1996, 221.)

18
Exploring the given-to-be-seen”: the theory
“[A] performative ‘works’ to the extent that it dra s on and covers over
the constitutive conventions by which it is mobilized. In this sense, no term
or statement can function performatively without the accumulating and
dissimulating historicity of force.”
Judith Butler 1993, 227.

In The Threshold of the Visible World, Silverman explores the domain

of the visual in order to rethink the relationship between idealization and
normativity. Reading Lacan, she summarizes an agenda for cultural change:

“If it is through textual production, especially in its visual or imaginary

forms, that the subject is encouraged to idealize certain bodily parameters,
it can only be through the creation and circulation of alternative images and
words that he or she can be given access to new identificatory coordinates.”
(Silverman 1996, 81)

While theorizing change, introducing history into the Lacanian model of

the visual as an interaction between the gaze, the look, and the screen, and
repoliticizing it, she (ibid., 131–135, 174, 178–179, 221) offers a new,
historicized, de-essentialized and re-politicized theory of the screen as
the cultural image-repertoire. According to Silverman, the cultural screen
“encompasses the particular representational logic and range of material
practices through which a given society at a particular moment in time
apprehends something which is itself unchanging” (ibid., 174). She concludes:

“The full range of representational coordinates which are culturally available

at a particular moment in time constitute what I have been calling the ‘screen’,
and those which propose themselves with a certain inevitability the ‘given-
to-be-seen’.” (Ibid., 221)

The notion of “given-to-be-seen” is of particular interest in the context of

the Niskavuori films. It captures the “it-goes-without-saying” quality that
is so characteristic of cultural artefacts with a nation-effect. The sense of
familiarity and self-explanatory logic is vital to narratives of belonging.
Furthemore, the givenness is an effect of the massive repetition, a central
feature of the Niskavuori framings.
As “representational coordinates” the cultural screen, however, is not
something that just exists. Instead, the coordinates gain their “appropriatedness”
through repetition:

“And just as certain words suggest themselves to us more readily than

others, because they are the currency of daily use in our society, so certain
representational coordinates propose themselves as more appropriate frames
through which to apprehend the world than others, simply because they are
subject within our society to a more frequent and emphatic articulation.”
(Ibid., 221.)

In Silverman’s own thinking, “given-to-be-seen” coincides also with another

concept, the dominant fiction, which she has developed in her previous work

19
and which she in The Threshold of the Visible World characterizes as a
“system of intelligibility” (ibid., 178–179). In this manner, she links her own
work to that of Judith Butler (1993) and underlines the connection between
power and the cultural screen: dominant fiction, in Silverman’s formulation
(1992, 16) is “what passes for reality in a given society”. According to
Silverman (1992, 16; 1996, 178), the dominant fiction is not “only – or
even primarily” about conscious belief, but “involves, rather, the activation
of certain desires and identifications”. As developed in Male Subjectivity
at the Margins (1992, 48), dominant fiction does not exist in abstract, but
as discursive practices. As such, its closeness to the notion of the cultural
screen becomes apparent. The concept of the dominant fiction focuses on
the relationships between gender and power: according to Silverman, the
distinction between masculinity and femininity is the most rudimentary
binary opposition, the equation of penis (male) and phallus (power) its
fundamental issue, and the family its most central signifier. (Silverman 1992,
16; 1996, 178.) While this core story reverberates with certain tendencies in
the framings of the Niskavuori films, dominant fiction is not a key concept
in this study. More importantly, Silverman herself develops the notion of
dominant fiction in her re-reading of Lacan:

“This system of intelligibility does not go unchallenged at the site of the screen
or cultural image-repertoire. It figures there more prominently than any other
system of intelligibility, but is often sharply contested by competing views of
‘reality’. Indeed, I will go so far as to suggest that the screen conventionally
consists not only of normative representations, but also of all kinds of
oppositional and subcultural representations.” (Silverman 1996, 179.)

Hence, the cultural screen encompasses both the dominant fiction and its
contestations, both normative and oppositional representations. Furthermore,
Silverman relativizes the transhistorical and universal nature of the dominant
fiction:
“Parts of the dominant fiction are in constant fluctuation, historically and
culturally. Other aspects have much greater longevity and persist from one
culture to another, even though they may be dependent for their survival on a
perpetual reiteration, within which local variations inevitably find expression.”
(Ibid., 178.)

As such, the notion of the cultural screen as a temporality and a represen-

tational logic is instructive for my analysis, propelling questions concerning
the construction of gender and sexuality in Niskavuori framings, in the same
manner as the work of Judith Butler on performativity and citationality as
historicity.
The notion of performativity entered feminist theory in Gender Trouble
(1990a) in which Judith Butler famously argues, “[t]here is no gender identity
behind the expressions of gender; that identity is performatively constituted
by the very ‘expressions’ that are said to be its results.” (Butler 1990a, 25.)
Specifying her argument, Butler proposes that “sex” which is often postulated
as the “biological”, stable foundation of socially, culturally constructed and
more unstable gender, is not to be understood as a “core” or “origin” of gender

20
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