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Routledge Series in Language and Content Integrated Teaching
& Plurilingual Education

SOFT CLIL AND ENGLISH

LANGUAGE TEACHING
UNDERSTANDING JAPANESE POLICY, PRACTICE,
AND IMPLICATIONS

Makoto Ikeda, Shinichi Izumi, Yoshinori

Watanabe, Richard Pinner, and Matthew Davis
Soft CLIL and English Language
Teaching

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is a transformative and powerful approach to language education and
has had a significant impact on educational pedagogy in recent years. Despite burgeoning literature on the efficacy and
implementation of CLIL, there remains a gap between CLIL and English Language Teaching (ELT). Many practitioners
wonder how they can “do CLIL” if their main classes are focused on English as a Foreign Language (EFL). This volume
addresses these concerns by examining the experiences of various CLIL practitioners in the EFL context of Japan.
Chapters outline the CLIL methodology, the differences in Hard CLIL (subject-led) and Soft CLIL (language-
oriented) before focusing on the EFL interpretations of Soft CLIL. Although the distinction of Hard CLIL and Soft
CLIL has been mentioned in several publications, this is the first book-length exploration of this issue, featuring
chapters examining expectations, challenges, material support, implementation, and even motivation in CLIL
classrooms. All of this culminates in a review of the potential and future of CLIL in EFL contexts, paving the way
for more widespread and well informed implementation of CLIL all over the world.

Makoto Ikeda is a professor of English philology and English language education in the Department of English
Literature at Sophia University. He received his MA in applied linguistics and English language teaching from King’s
College London and his PhD in English philology from Sophia University. He has written various CLIL methodology
books and articles for practitioners and researchers in Japan and delivered numerous invited lectures, seminars and
workshops for Japanese, Asian, and European audiences. His current research interests include the precise nature of
integration in CLIL, particularly how grammatical and lexical items are unconsciously acquired while students are
consciously engaged in content learning.

Shinichi Izumi is a professor in the Department of English Studies at Sophia University, where he teaches in the BA
programme in English language studies and the MA and the PhD programmes in applied linguistics and TESOL. He
received his MA in applied linguistics from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale and his PhD in applied lin-
guistics from Georgetown University. He has been involved in EFL teacher education throughout Japan and has
published widely both nationally and internationally in areas related to instructed second/foreign language acquisi-
tion, in particular on topics related to Content-Based Instruction (CBI), Task-Based Instruction (TBI), Focus on
Form, and CLIL.

Yoshinori Watanabe is a professor of the Graduate School of Languages and Linguistics at Sophia University. He holds a
PhD from Lancaster University, focusing his dissertation on the washback effect of Japanese university entrance examina-
tions. He has a long-standing interest in language learning strategies, language assessment, and CLIL, and he has a number
of publications in these areas, including “Washback effects of college entrance examination on language learning strategies”
(Bulletin of Japan Association of College English Teaching), Washback in Language Testing (with Liying Cheng,
Routledge), and many others. His latest contributions include CLIL, Volumes I, II, and III (co-authored, Sophia University
Press), and “Profiling lexical features of teacher talk in CLIL courses—The case of an EAP programme at higher education in
Japan” (International CLIL Research Journal). He is currently president of Japan Language Testing Association.

Richard Pinner is an associate professor in the Department of English Literature at Sophia University. He holds an
MA in applied linguistics and ELT from King’s College London and a PhD from The University of Warwick. He is the
author of three books, as well as several articles which have appeared in international journals such as Language
Teaching Research and TESOL Quarterly. His research focuses on the dynamic relationship between authenticity and
motivation in language teaching and learning.

Matthew Davis is a teacher at Okayama Prefectural Okayama Daianji Secondary School, where he teaches English as a
foreign language at both the lower and upper secondary level. While he holds an MA in English language education
from Okayama University, his undergraduate background is in international affairs and Japanese. His involvement in
implementing Soft CLIL at the secondary level began with attempts to improve classroom-based English debate tasks
in 2013. While he continues to speak on, participate in, and promote English debate, his primary interest is on CLIL
task design and observing student interaction in tasks.
Soft CLIL and English
Language Teaching
Understanding Japanese Policy,
Practice, and Implications

Makoto Ikeda, Shinichi Izumi,

Yoshinori Watanabe, Richard
Pinner, and Matthew Davis
First published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa
business
© 2022 Makoto Ikeda, Shinichi Izumi, Yoshinori Watanabe, Richard
Pinner and Matthew Davis
The right of Makoto Ikeda, Shinichi Izumi, Yoshinori Watanabe,
Richard Pinner, and Matthew Davis to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and
78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ikeda, Makoto (Philologist), author. | Routledge (Firm)
Title: Soft CLIL and English language teaching : understanding
Japanese policy, practice, and implications / Makoto Ikeda, Shinichi
Izumi, Yoshinori Watanabe, Richard Pinner, Matthew Davis.
Other titles: Soft Content and Language Integrated Learning and
English language teaching
Description: First Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2020.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020026045 (print) | LCCN 2020026046 (ebook)
| ISBN 9780367145637 (Hardcover) | ISBN 9780429032332
(eBook)
Subjects: LCSH: English language‐‐Study and teaching‐‐Foreign
speakers‐‐Research‐‐Methodology. | Second language
acquisition‐‐Japan.
Classification: LCC PE1128.A2 I34 2020 (print) | LCC PE1128.A2
(ebook) | DDC 428.0071/052‐‐dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026045
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026046

ISBN: 978-0-367-14563-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-61831-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-03233-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Galliard
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
Contents

List of Figures x
List of Tables xii
Acknowledgements xiii

Introduction—CLIL in Japan: The case for Soft CLIL

in the EFL context 1
MAKOTO IKE D A & R IC HA R D PI N N E R

1 Introduction 1
2 ELT in Japan 1
3 CLIL in Japan 3
4 Structure of this book 5
5 Conclusion 6
References 7

1 “How would you like your CLIL?”: Conceptualising

Soft CLIL 9
MAKOTO IKE D A

1 Introduction 9
2 Locating CLIL in ELT methodologies 9
3 Differentiating various content-driven approaches 11
4 Identifying types of CLIL 14
5 Defining Soft CLIL 16
6 Designing Soft CLIL lessons and materials 17
7 Critiquing Soft CLIL 21
8 Conclusion 23
References 24
vi Contents
2 Meeting the challenges of realising Soft CLIL in EFL
classes in Japan 27
S HIN IC HI IZ U M I

1 Introduction 27
2 Integration versus separation of language and content in
language classrooms 28
3 Challenges with the 4Cs in English education in Japan 29
4 Adopting Soft CLIL in a secondary-level English class 30
4.1 “From-trees-to-forest” approach versus “from-forest-
to-trees” approach 30
4.2 Round-based Soft CLIL class: Preliminary lesson
ideas and its flow 31
4.2.1 Round 1: Introduction 33
4.2.2 Round 2: Scanning 33
4.2.3 Round 3: Word/phrase hunt 1
(from Japanese to English) 34
4.2.4 Round 4: Word/phrase hunt 2
(from English to Japanese) 35
4.2.5 Round 5: Chunk reading 36
4.2.6 Round 6: Chunk translation 1
(from English to Japanese) 37
4.2.7 Round 7: Chunk translation 2
(from Japanese to English) 38
4.2.8 Rounds 8 and 9: Michio’s photographs 38
4.2.9 Beyond this lesson 39
5 Comparison of traditional English lessons and Soft CLIL
lessons 40
6 Tips for materials preparation 41
7 Conclusion 43
References 44

3 Focus on form for content and language integration 46

S HIN IC HI IZ U M I

1 Introduction 46
2 What is focus on form? 46
3 How are FonF and CLIL related? 47
4 What types of focus on form are there? 49
5 How can we focus on form? 52
6 When should we focus on form? 55
 Contents vii
7 Focus on form in action 56
8 Conclusion 59
References 60

4 Concept-centred Soft CLIL: Uncovering concepts in

EFL content 63
MATTHEW D A V IS

1 Introduction 63
2 Unifying concepts 64
2.1 Concept mining 64
2.2 Defining and framing 70
2.2.1 Concept defining 71
2.2.2 Framing concept 73
3 Building a unit around a unifying concept 75
3.1 The unit plan 75
3.2 Tasks and materials 77
3.2.1 Concept defining 78
3.2.2 Framing concept 81
4 Conclusion 84
References 85

5 Pedagogical translanguaging in primary school math

CLIL lessons in Japan 86
MAKOTO IKE D A

1 Introduction 86
2 Defining pedagogical translanguaging in CLIL 87
3 The context and data 88
4 Intuitive practice of translanguaging 89
5 Domains of pedagogical translanguaging 92
6 Informed practice of translanguaging 99
7 Conclusion 99
References 100

6 Authenticity and motivation in Soft CLIL materials 103

RIC HARD PI N NE R

1 Introduction 103
2 Definition of the key concepts 105
2.1 Authenticity in language teaching 105
2.2 Motivation to learn another language 106
viii Contents
3 The issue of materials in CLIL 108
4 Soft CLIL versus EFL materials—Drawing on the
central reservoir 113
5 Suggestions for researchers and practitioners 115
6 Conclusion 116
References 117

7 Assessing Soft CLIL 121

YOS HI NO RI W AT A N ABE

1 Introduction 121
2 Basic principles of language assessment 122
2.1 Why?—The purpose of assessing Soft CLIL 122
2.2 What?—The target domain to assess in a Soft CLIL
curriculum 124
2.3 How?—The method of assessing Soft CLIL 126
2.4 When?—The timing of administering assessments
in a Soft CLIL course 129
2.5 Who?—The assessor in a Soft CLIL
curriculum 131
3 Drawing up a test specification 132
4 Incorporating language components in the
framework 136
5 Assessment tasks—Examples 139
5.1 Assessing topical knowledge or content 140
5.2 Assessing cognition 142
6 Conclusion 143
References 145

8 The potential of Soft CLIL in light of the diffusion of

innovation theory 148
YOS HI NO RI W AT A N ABE

1 Introduction 148
2 The diffusion of innovation theory and language
education 150
3 Process of diffusion of innovation 151
3.1 Factors present in innovation itself 154
3.2 Adopters and users—Antecedent contexts 155
3.3 Factors within the user system 156
3.4 Adopter categories 157
3.5 Inner-elemental factors 158
 Contents ix
3.6 Processes 159
3.7 Consequences 160
3.8 The strategy of promoting innovation 161
3.9 Evaluation 162
4 Conclusion 162
References 164

Conclusion—Implications of and challenges for

practicing Soft CLIL and a way forward 167
S HIN IC HI IZU MI & R I CHA R D PI N N E R

1 Wrapping up 167
2 Implications for Soft CLIL in Japan and beyond 168
3 ELF and CLIL 169
4 Challenges for implementing Soft CLIL 171
5 Suggestions for further research on Soft CLIL 173
6 Moving forward 175
References 175

Index 178
Figures

1.1 CLIL in ELT methodologies (Ikeda, 2012) 10

1.2 CBI-CLIL-EMI continuum (adapted from Hanzawa, 2017) 11
1.3 Approaches to simultaneous content and language teaching 13
1.4 Types of CLIL in comparison with ELT and EMI 15
1.5 The ratio of explicit instruction in Soft CLIL and Hard CLIL
(inspired by van Lier, 2005, which appears in Brinton &
Snow, 2017) 18
1.6 The 4Cs and 4Ts of CLIL 20
2.1 Overall flow of the suggested lesson 31
2.2 PowerPoint slide for the scanning activity 34
2.3 PowerPoint slide for Word/Phrase hunt 1 (from Japanese to
English) 35
2.4 PowerPoint slide for Word/Phrase hunt 2 (from English to
Japanese) 36
2.5 PowerPoint slide for the chunk-reading activity 37
2.6 PowerPoint slide for the chunk translation activity (from English
to Japanese) 39
3.1 Form-meaning-function mapping in language learning (adapted
from Izumi, 2009, p. 137) 48
3.2 CLIL and FonF in relation to other teaching approaches
(adapted from Ikeda, 2012, p. 2) 49
3.3 FonF taxonomy (adapted from Williams, 2005, p. 677) 50
3.4 FonF techniques in terms of their obtrusiveness (adapted from
Doughty & Williams, 1998, p. 258) 53
3.5 PowerPoint slide for “pronunciation clinic” 58
4.1 Typical pattern of an example of biomimetics 66
4.2 Concept mining flowchart 68
4.3 Examples illustrating the concept of biomimetics in an EFL
textbook 72
4.4 Modified Frayer Model 79
4.5 Example of speaking frames for retelling 80
4.6 Excerpt of materials used for task to introduce the unifying
concept 82
 Figures xi
4.7 Excerpts of materials used for a concept application reading
task (actual text from Tanaka et al., 2014, pp. 45–52) 83
4.8 Excerpts of a paragraph writing template 83
5.1 Domains of pedagogical translanguaging 92
5.2 Prompt for a Soft CLIL speaking task 96
6.1 Basic Assumption 1 104
6.2 CLIL Inside sticker from Heinle’s World Around EFL 112
7.1 Three prototype relationships between language and topic in
the syllabus 129
7.2 An example of test task using a map and a set of data 144
8.1 The process of diffusion of innovation—A simplified version of
Henrichsen’s Hybrid Model 153
Tables

0.1 CLIL articles and projects in Japan 4

1.1 Soft CLIL versus Hard CLIL (adapted from Dale &
Tanner, 2012) 17
1.2 Framework for a CLIL lesson (Ikeda, 2016) 18
1.3 Framework for a CLIL art lesson 19
1.4 CLIL pedagogical skills (Ikeda, 2012) 21
1.5 Traditional teaching versus CLIL (Ikeda, 2016) 21
2.1 Comparison of traditional English lessons and soft CLIL
lessons 41
4.1 Comparison of characteristics of defining and framing 71
4.2 Examples of unifying concepts and their concept-text
relationship 74
4.3 Unit progression with a “concept defining” concept-text
relationship 77
4.4 Unit progression with a “framing concept” concept-text
relationship 78
5.1 Functions of L1 use in L2-medium content classrooms 87
7.1 Elements of language assessment tasks (adapted from
Bachman, 1990) 127
7.2 Two-dimensional model of Bloom’s educational taxonomy
(adapted from Anderson et al., 2001) 134
7.3 Matrix for assessing topical knowledge and language by
methods (adapted from Short, 1993) 137
7.4 An example list of specifications for assessing Soft CLIL with
the topic of “folk weather forecast” 138
7.5 An example of specifications for assessing Soft CLIL with the
topic of happiness 139
8.1 Summary of factors involved in innovation itself and user
system 154
Acknowledgements

The seed of this book goes back to an in-house project in 2008 to launch a new
language teaching programme at Sophia University, Tokyo. Although CLIL was
not well known in Japan at that time, the three main authors of this volume
(Ikeda, Izumi, and Watanabe) recognised its innovative values and designed a
trial EAP (English for Academic Purposes) programme based on CLIL principles
and pedagogy. The implementation of the Soft CLIL programme was favourably
accepted both by the teachers and the students, and it has been developed into a
university-wide course named Academic Communication, which is now offered
to all the first-year students.
In parallel with the design and implementation of the new language programme,
the authors worked on a series of books written in Japanese in order to provide
detailed information about CLIL theories and techniques. The books are published
as CLIL (Content and language integrated learning): New challenges in foreign
language education at Sophia University (Volume 1: Principles and methods,
Volume 2: Practices and applications, Volume 3: Lessons and materials), which are
widely read by language teaching professionals in Japan, playing an important role
in promoting CLIL practice in the country. This volume springs from the three
books, but all the chapters are freshly written in English for the global readership.
The authors would like to express our gratitude to those who helped us throughout
the process above. First of all, we appreciate Sophia University’s financial and
institutional support in developing the first full-scale CLIL programme in Japan.
Secondly, we thank CLIL colleagues in Japan for sharing their lesson materials, plans,
and ideas, from which we learnt a lot. And thirdly, in enhancing CLIL interest in
Japan in general, and designing and implementing the CLIL programme at our
institution in particular, we owe tremendously to David Marsh, Peter Mehisto, Do
Coyle, Rosie Tanner, Ana Llinares, Angel Lin, and Christiane Dalton-Puffer, who
came all the way to Japan to deliver lectures, seminars, workshops, and provide world-
class expertise and experience. Particularly, for the present volume, our thanks go to
Angel and Christiane, who have given us an opportunity for publication, extremely
helpful feedback on each of the chapters, and warm encouragement until the
completion of this book project.
Introduction—CLIL in Japan:
The case for Soft CLIL in the
EFL context

1 Introduction
This book is an exploration of the issue of Soft CLIL, an alternative version of
Content and Language Integrated Learning in which, although both language and
content learning aims are the focus, the emphasis is primarily on language learning
(the early literature that use the term Soft CLIL include Ball, 2009 and Bentley,
2010). Such a version of CLIL is spreading around many institutions, from the
ground up and from the top down, in various countries, numerous levels of edu-
cation and in multiple contexts. Typically, as with more mainstream CLIL pro-
grammes, the language of instruction is English, and the widespread permeation
and enthusiastic uptake of Soft CLIL is felt most keenly in contexts where English is
a foreign language and the countries are geographically and culturally different from
English speaking or traditional norm-providing varieties: the so-called outer circle
or periphery of English uses (Kachru, 2006), which is, with recent World English
paradigms, seen as their indigenous norms that are useful in individual contexts
(Kirkpatrick, 2010). Whilst countries such as the Netherlands, Austria, and Spain
are also EFL (English as a Foreign Language) contexts, Soft CLIL is not prevalent
in these countries because the generally higher English proficiencies of students
make Hard CLIL (prototypical content-oriented model) feasible and more op-
portunities to use English with other ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) speakers are
available. This indicates that Soft CLIL is probably better suited to countries in
which English proficiency is important, and indeed perhaps even a requirement,
and yet the language has generally been treated as a subject with sparse occasion for
learners to actually use the language for communicative purposes outside the
classroom. This is exactly the English learning environment in Japan, hence
abundant interpretations, implementations, and adaptations of Soft CLIL are ex-
istent. This volume aims at sharing some of such practices, insights, and implica-
tions that CLIL in Japan has developed in the past decade.

2 ELT in Japan
Foreign language teaching in the school system in Japan started in the last
quarter of the 19th century, when secondary school students (roughly 20% of
2 Introduction—CLIL in Japan
primary school graduates) received five to seven language lessons a week (Imura,
2003). Since then, the English language has been taught as one of the core
subjects for entrance examinations to get into high schools and universities, with
the main teaching methodology being the grammar translation method (i.e.,
written passages are read aloud and translated into Japanese; grammatical rules
and high-frequency words are extracted from the texts, which are explained by
the teacher and drilled by the students in written exercises). This traditional way
of teaching and learning English is still conducted in many classrooms, together
with audiolingualism (i.e., target pronunciation, phrases, sentence structures,
and dialogues are imitated, repeated, and practiced orally) that appeared in the
first half of the 20th century. However, with the post-war reconstruction and
recovery of the country in the late 20th century, which has made Japan one of the
most economically successful and technologically advanced nations in the world,
English for communicative purposes has been advocated and demanded,
bringing about, for example, the heyday of PPP (i.e., firstly, the target gram-
matical and lexical items are “presented” in spoken and written forms; secondly,
adjacency-pair dialogues including these language points are “practiced” orally
by repetition; and finally, new conversations are “produced” in pairs or groups).
Now, facing the 21st-century globalisation, English language education in Japan
is experiencing the most profound reform in its history. This is conspicuously
seen in the latest de-facto national curriculum, known as the Course of Study
(MEXT, 2017a, 2017b, 2018a, 2018b), which is issued by MEXT (the Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sport, and Technology) and starts to take effect in 2020
for the primary level (7–12 in age), in 2021 for the lower secondary level (13–15
in age), and in 2022 onwards for the upper secondary level (16–18 in age). Let
us pick up some of the key aspects regarding foreign language education.
At the primary school level, formal English education starts for Years 5 and 6
pupils (11 and 12 years old). Actually, one English lesson or two had been
conducted weekly at primary schools for more than 10 years, but the purpose was
for children to enjoy and experience English through songs, games, and basic
patterned interactions (e.g., “what lunch menu do you like?,” “I like spa-
ghetti.”). This is called “English/foreign language activity,” which is now of-
fered to Years 3 and 4 children (9 and 10 years old). To Years 5 and 6 students,
English is formally taught twice a week (45 minutes each) as a formal curricular
subject. This means that specific goals in each skill (listening, reading, spoken
interaction, spoken presentation, writing), content details (pronunciation, let-
ters, punctuations, words, expressions, sentence structures, grammar), and ex-
amples of activities are described in the Course of Study, government-authorised
textbooks are used, and pupils are awarded grades at the end of each term. This is
considered to be “revolutionary” in Japan because the starting age for formal
foreign language education has been lowered from 13 years in age to 11.
At the secondary education level, the changes are not particularly revolutionary
but definitely evolutionary. For example, the number of new words to appear in
textbooks will increase from 1200 to 1600–1800 for junior high school English
and from 1800 to 2500 for senior high school English; speaking skills are divided
 Introduction—CLIL in Japan 3
into interaction and presentation; goals for individual skills (listening, reading,
spoken interaction, spoken presentation, writing) are specified. In line with these
overarching revisions in school language teaching, there is reference to a cross-
curricular approach in the new Course of Study, which says:

Language activity topics should be appropriate to students’ interests.

Teachers should come up with ways to develop students’ abilities to solve
issues using English by relating the content to what students have learned in
other lessons such as Japanese Language, Science and Music.
(MEXT, 2017b, p. 151; translation by Link Interac, 2020, p. 53).

In the more detailed version of the new Course of Study, MEXT provides
concrete examples of subject knowledge used in a language lesson:

To take Science as an example, in dealing with materials about solar power

generation in a foreign language class, what is learnt in “energy and energy
sources” in Science can be used as background knowledge. Also, as to a link
to Music, it is possible to activate what students have learnt, through
appreciation of “features of traditional music in our country and various
music in other countries, and the diversity of music brought by such
features.” (MEXT, 2018b, p. 88; our translation)

Although the new Course of Study does not mention CLIL per se, an awareness
of content and language integration is at least apparent. It is expected that
various types of Soft CLIL activities will appear in textbooks based on the new
Course of Study.
It is in this vein that seeds of CLIL were thrown onto the Japanese language
learning soil around 2010, buds popped up in the early 2010s, young trees
started to spread their roots in the middle of the decade, and trees are growing
rapidly and currently spreading their branches.

3 CLIL in Japan
CLIL in Japan is roughly 10 years old. The first book on CLIL pedagogy written in
Japanese for teachers in Japan came out in 2011 (Watanabe, Ikeda, & Izumi, 2011).
Since then, a decent number of monographs about CLIL principles and practices
have emerged on the market (e.g., Ikeda, Watanabe, & Izumi, 2016; Izumi, 2016;
Izumi, Ikeda, & Watanabe 2012; Kashiwagi & Ito, 2020; Okuno, Kobayashi, Sato,
Motoda, & Watanabe, 2018; Sasajima, 2011; Sasajima, 2020; Sasajima & Yamano,
2019). A series of coursebooks for university language courses is also available with
the titles including CLIL health sciences (2013), CLIL global issues (2014), CLIL
human biology (2015), CLIL basic math and science (2018), and CLIL intercultural
awareness (2020), all of which are from Sanshusha publishers.
CLIL does not only attract practitioners and teacher trainers, but researches as
well. In order to grasp the tendency of CLIL studies in Japan, two online surveys
4 Introduction—CLIL in Japan
Table 0.1 CLIL articles and projects in Japan

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Total

CiNii articles 5 19 33 37 48 42 46 38 270

Kakenhi projects 3 1 4 4 3 8 9 6 38

were conducted. One is to see how many articles on CLIL come out every year in
Japan by using an online academic paper database CiNii (Scholarly and Academic
Information Navigator). The other is to know how many CLIL research projects
are adopted for Kakenhi (grants-in-aid for scientific research), the largest-scale
government research funds in Japan, using the search engine on their website.
Table 0.1 shows the results.
Judging from the increase in the number of articles and projects, CLIL re-
search in Japan seems to have taken off around the years 2014 and 2015.
However, most of the CiNii articles are about case studies (Tsuchiya, 2019) and
many of the Kakenhi projects are about the adaptation of European CLIL
(curriculum/syllabus design, materials development, classroom pedagogy, tea-
cher training) for implementation in Japan (Ikeda, 2019). Besides, the majority
of the articles and the projects are about Soft CLIL and reported mainly in
Japanese. For the global readership, The International CLIL Research Journal
(2/1, 2013) features CLIL in Japan and carries five articles about CLIL practices
in various educational settings. More recent publications available in English
include Ikeda (2019) and Tsuchiya and Pérez Murillo (2019).
Turning our attention to actual CLIL implementations, which happen almost
in equal measure at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, they are abundant and
varied from individual practitioners’ practices to institutional programme pro-
visions, the latter of which are also diverse in programme design: some schools
employ Hard CLIL and teach a few core-curricular subjects such as math and
science, others adopt Soft CLIL and treat cross-curricular themes like global
issues and SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals). The Japan CLIL Pedagogy
Association (J-CLIL), which was established in 2018 and has about 400 mem-
bers, is preparing a large-scale survey about CLIL implementations all over
Japan. As a preliminary study, a questionnaire was administered to 127 teachers
and researchers who participated in CLIL lectures, seminars, and workshops
from February to June, 2018 (Ikeda 2019). The distribution of the respondents
seems to represent the current CLIL practices in Japan: in educational stage, the
majority of them are secondary school teachers (39%) or university instructors
(34%), and a few of them are primary school teachers (14%); in subject, most of
them teach English (63%), followed by math (11%), science (6%), and social
studies (5%). This endorses the general perception that the dominant type of
CLIL implemented in Japan is Soft CLIL.
The questionnaire also asked the respondents to comment on perceived
benefits/expectations and challenges/difficulties in doing CLIL in Japan. One
 Introduction—CLIL in Japan 5
hundred and fifty-eight responses were obtained for the former and 129 for the
latter. The comments were then classified into nine identified categories, which
are presented below with representative opinions:

• Content: Students enjoy learning content in English.

• Communication: Students use English for real purposes, but their English is
not good enough to learn content.
• Cognition: Students think deeply about content.
• Culture: Students work collaboratively and have interest in other cultures.
• Integrated learning: Students can simultaneously develop their content
knowledge, language proficiency, and thinking skills. However, lesson time
is too short and assessment is very difficult if we try to cover multiple
components.
• Students: Students are highly motivated and autonomous.
• Teachers: Teachers enjoy teaching CLIL lessons and develop professionally.
On the other hand, they need to spend a lot of time on materials
development and lesson preparation.
• CLIL methodology: The 4Cs framework is really useful and works, but
content teachers do not have knowledge and interest in CLIL.
• Other: Institutional support is necessary for CLIL implementation.

Looking at the data differently, there are much more responses about
“Communication” (56 comments) and “Integrated learning” (55 comments)
than about other categories (28 comments on average). This is not surprising,
considering the fact that CLIL in Japan is mainly intended for language profi-
ciency development blended with some content learning (for general discussion
on the rationale for content-based learning in language classes, see Mehisto &
Ting, 2017, pp. 46–48).

4 Structure of this book

This volume is in-between a coherently structured book written by a few authors
and a collection of papers on one central theme contributed by several re-
searchers. This means that, on the one hand, the chapters cover most of the key
aspects of Soft CLIL such as theoretical principles, lesson design, pedagogical
skills, materials development, authenticity and motivation, and assessment issues,
but, on the other hand, each chapter is somewhat independent and does not
closely refer to each other. This adaptability exactly reflects the present situations
of Soft CLIL in Japan: many researchers and practitioners believe that there is
not a prescriptive model to be strictly followed, but a general guideline to be
flexibly applied in order to cultivate the benefits of this innovative language
teaching approach. Bearing this in mind, readers are advised to read the in-
dividual chapters.
In Chapter 1, Ikeda identifies the place of CLIL in various ELT methodolo-
gies, distinguishes different types of content-driven language instruction in
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