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“Daniel Adleman and Chris Vanderwees have performed a miracle.
In Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric they lay out the manifold con-
nections between psychoanalytic theory and rhetorical analysis that
now seem clear and self-evident, but only because they have writ-
ten this path-breaking work. Picking up some clues left by Kenneth
Burke, Adleman and Vanderwees take both psychoanalytic thinking
and rhetoric where neither has gone before, uncovering how their
shared territory is replete with new theoretical insights. For anyone
who wants to consider either psychoanalysis or rhetoric, this book is
impossible to miss.”

– Todd McGowan, Professor of Film Studies at the University of Vermont;

author of Emancipation after Hegel and Capitalism and Desire.

“In one of his last seminars, Lacan declared that the psychoanalyst is
above all a ‘rhetor,’ both an orator intent upon convincing an audi-
ence and a specialist of rhetoric. Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric
argues cogently that Lacan’s return to Freud entailed the elaboration
of a ‘new rhetoric’ identical to what Kenneth Burke was teaching at
the same time. Burke, like Lacan, a close reader of Freud, is shown to
provide an innovative way of understanding the language of psycho-
analysis. By detailing the multiple aspects of such a rhetoric, Adleman
and Vanderwees offer an original thesis that radically modifies our
conception of psychoanalysis.”

– Jean-Michel Rabaté, Professor of English at the University of

Pennsylvania, member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

“Particularly for those engaging with Freudianism from Lacanian

angles, it has long been appreciated that the unconscious of the ‘talk-
ing cure’ is ‘structured like a language.’ However, in Psychoanalysis
and the New Rhetoric, Daniel Adleman and Chris Vanderwees, instead
of relying solely on Saussurian linguistics and its offshoots, deftly
utilize Burke’s rhetorical theory to renew and enrich our apprecia-
tion of the language-related dimensions of the theory, practice, and
teaching of psychoanalysis. In so doing, Adleman and Vanderwees
admirably demonstrate that only a multi-dimensional approach to
language can do justice to psychoanalysis as an inherently interdis-
ciplinary field.”

– Adrian Johnston, Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the University

of New Mexico
“This is a brave and brilliant book by Daniel Adleman and Chris
Vanderwees which reads Burke’s revival of rhetoric as similar to many
principles taken from Freud such as identification and free associa-
tion. Rhetoric is a function of language for Burke and Lacan, offering
psychoanalytic vitality. Lacan’s Seminars are portrayed as modes of
listening to speech action and take rhetoric as their model. While
Burke’s speaking symbol is not Lacan’s Symbolic, Lacan’s rhetoric dis-
plays thoughts in action. Lacan performed rhetoric in his Seminars
with an attitude intended for an audience’s unconscious. Like Burke,
Lacan aimed to persuade. The Other for both was fragmented and dis-
unified. Lacan, like Burke, listened for metonymy, periphrastic, gaps,
and so on. The Seminars were spontaneous speech, body and voice, an
act of persuasion. Rhetoric and psychoanalysis are kindred disciplines
that probe the unknowable limits of connection and eloquence.”

– Ellie Ragland, Professor Emerita of English at the University of Missouri;

author of Jacques Lacan and the Logic of Structure.

“This volume stages an eloquent encounter between psychoanalysis

and the rhetorical arts of persuasion, where the psychoanalytic rela-
tion is both an ethical and socio-symbolic address that takes place in
and as language. Grounded in accessible and compelling contempo-
rary examples, psychoanalysis and rhetoric emerge here as parallel his-
tories, the symbolic/symptomatic action of each as the unconscious of
the other. Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric brings to light an interde-
pendence that was always there but is seldom theorised. In addressing
this oversight, it makes a substantive interdisciplinary contribution to
rhetorical studies, to psychoanalysis, and to the understanding of an
increasingly anxious and polarizing political scene.”

– Stuart J. Murray, Professor of Rhetoric and Ethics at Carleton University;

author of The Living from the Dead: Disaffirming Biopolitics.
Psychoanalysis and the
New Rhetoric

Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric: Freud, Burke, Lacan, and Philosophy’s
Other Scenes is an innovative work that places the fields of psychoanalysis
and rhetoric in dynamic resonance with one another. The book oper-
ates according to a compelling interdisciplinary conceit: Adleman pro-
vocatively explores the psychoanalytic aspects of rhetoric and Vanderwees
probes the rhetorical dimensions of psychoanalytic practice.
This thoroughly researched text takes a closer look at the “missed
encounter” between rhetoric and psychoanalysis. The first section of the
book explores the massive, but underappreciated, influence of Freudian
psychoanalysis on Kenneth Burke’s “new rhetoric.” The book’s second
section undertakes sustained investigations into the rhetorical dimen-
sions of psychoanalytic concepts such as transference, free association, and
listening. Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric then culminates in a more
comprehensive discussion of Lacanian psychoanalysis in the context of
Kenneth Burke’s new rhetoric. The book therefore serves as an invaluable
aperture to the fields of psychoanalysis and rhetoric, including their much
overlooked disciplinary entanglement.
Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric will be of great interest to scholars of
psychoanalytic studies, rhetoric, language studies, semiotics, media stud-
ies, and communication studies.

Daniel Adleman, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Writing and Rhetoric

at the University of Toronto.

Chris Vanderwees, PhD, RP, is a psychoanalyst, registered psychother-

apist, and clinical supervisor at St. John the Compassionate Mission in
Toronto, Canada.
The Lines of the Symbolic in Psychoanalysis Series
Series Editor
Ian Parker, Manchester Psychoanalytic Matrix

Psychoanalytic clinical and theoretical work is always embedded in specific

linguistic and cultural contexts and carries their traces, traces which this
series attends to in its focus on multiple contradictory and antagonistic “lines
of the Symbolic.” This series takes its cue from Lacan’s psychoanalytic work
on three registers of human experience, the Symbolic, the Imaginary and
the Real, and employs this distinctive understanding of cultural, commu-
nication, and embodiment to link with other traditions of cultural, clinical,
and theoretical practice beyond the Lacanian symbolic universe. The Lines
of the Symbolic in Psychoanalysis Series provides a reflexive reworking
of theoretical and practical issues, translating psychoanalytic writing from
different contexts, grounding that work in the specific histories and politics
that provide the conditions of possibility for its descriptions and interven-
tions to function. The series makes connections between different cultural
and disciplinary sites in which psychoanalysis operates, questioning the idea
that there could be one single correct reading and application of Lacan. Its
authors trace their own path, their own line through the Symbolic, situ-
ating psychoanalysis in relation to debates which intersect with Lacanian
work, explicating it, extending it, and challenging it.

Psychoanalysis, Politics, Oppression and Resistance

Lacanian Perspectives
Chris Vanderwees and Kristen Hennessy

Lacanian Fantasy
The Image, Language and Uncertainty
Kirk Turner

Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric

Freud, Burke, Lacan, and Philosophy’s Other Scenes
Daniel Adleman and Chris Vanderwees

For more information about the series, please visit: https://www.routledge.

com/The-Lines-of-the-Symbolic-in-Psychoanalysis-Series/book-series/
KARNLOS
Psychoanalysis and the
New Rhetoric
Freud, Burke, Lacan, and Philosophy’s
Other Scenes

Daniel Adleman and

Chris Vanderwees
Cover image: Dan Starling
First published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Daniel Adleman and Chris Vanderwees
The right of Daniel Adleman and Chris Vanderwees to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Adleman, Daniel, author. | Vanderwees, Chris, author.
Title: Psychoanalysis and the new rhetoric : Freud, Burke, Lacan,
and philosophy’s other scenes / Daniel Adleman, Chris Vanderwees.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge,
2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Summary: “Psychoanalysis and the New Rhetoric: Freud, Burke,
Lacan, and Philosophy’s Other Scenes is an innovative work that
posits the fields of psychoanalysis and rhetoric into reciprocal
dialogue. It explores the rhetoric of psychoanalysis and the
psychoanalytic aspects of rhetoric, and discusses what could be
termed as the “missed encounter””-- Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022027289 (print) | LCCN 2022027290
(ebook) | ISBN 9781032101811 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032101835
(paperback) | ISBN 9781003214069 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychoanalysis. | Rhetoric.
Classification: LCC BF173 .A557 2023 (print) | LCC BF173 (ebook) |
DDC 150.19/5--dc23/eng/20220909
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022027289
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022027290

ISBN: 978-1-032-10181-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-10183-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-21406-9 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003214069

Typeset in Bembo
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Contents

Prefaceviii
Acknowledgementsx
About the Authorsxi
Abbreviationsxii

Introduction: Missed Encounters1

1 The Rhetorical Unconscious: Reconciling

Rival Topographies 34

2 Burke’s Little Affect A 45

3 Identification, Disidentification, Scapegoating,

and War 63

4 Beyond the Pressure Principle: Disorientation,

Debunking, and Conspiracy 79

5 Charcot and Freud: From Clinical Gaze to

Free Association 97

6 All Ears: Psychoanalysis and the Rhetoric of

Listening115

7 Lacan’s Psychoanalytic Rhetoric: The Power of

Non-Understanding140

References 163
Index 174
Preface

Sigmund Freud was a master of rhetoric, formulating his extrapolations

from case studies in such a way as to persuade the reader not only that what
he described was the case but also that the consequences of each particular
case should be borne in mind by a psychoanalyst listening to their own
analysands. That gorgeous rhetorical trickery bore fruit in the production
of a host of concepts that then became reified, in the course of the history
of psychoanalysis, as ostensibly real things under the surface of language.
The task fell to another master rhetorician, Jacques Lacan, to desubstan-
tialize that paraphernalia and dissolve the mechanisms Freud pointed to
into language itself. Lacan showed us that the language of psychoanalysis
had constructed what it spoke of in symbolic conditions that were not of
its own making. That is, psychoanalysis both pointed to and was embed-
ded in something beyond itself; it was embedded in the symbolic and was
a symbolic achievement. Something of that symbolic achievement is revis-
ited in the work of every singular analysis, by every analysand.
While we engage in that symbolic work, we also often become
bewitched by it, which is why we need theory to disentangle what we
speak of from the temptation to reduce it to what we easily “understand”
and what we can, it seems, transparently communicate to others. That
is, our rhetorical work, which we do not entirely control, is always also
a lure into the imaginary, and then we imagine not only that we control
meaning but that we also access and describe things below the surface of
language that we have actually constructed as if we can directly access the
real and make it visible, tangible, understandable.
Others have followed this path to a rhetorical engagement with sub-
jectivity outside psychoanalysis and, this book shows, then have had to
connect with what is unconscious to us as we speak. And so, while it was
Lacan that turned psychoanalysis into many different contradictory forms
of rhetoric, it was Kenneth Burke who journeyed into psychoanalytic ter-
ritory with his compass points furnished from rhetoric itself.
Is this “osmosis,” as Daniel Adleman and Chris Vanderwees claim? If it
is to be so, if we are to be guided along the paths to theoretical and clini-
cal inquiry opened up by that particular rhetorical figure – for “osmosis”
 Preface ix
should be conceived of here as a rhetorical device – then we need to attend
to the moments where psychoanalysis, which here is Lacanian, intersects
with, touches upon, rhetoric, which here is Burkean. Osmosis, of course,
is a characteristic of living matter. It is of the real, and sometimes ide-
alized as such, taken to be a model for how human beings may coexist
with each other and with nature; its opposite, predation, and parasitism, is
often feared, a more dangerous model of bloody strife that makes peaceful
coexistence impossible.
This book fashions an argument from a debate, a position from counter-
posing conceptual disciplinary standpoints, that psychoanalysis and rheto-
ric must live together in order to authentically be what they are, for what
each claim for themselves. The singularity of each of the two standpoints
is made possible by the combination of the two. This is an encounter with
philosophy, with Burke’s “new rhetoric” that renews psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalytic clinical and theoretical work circulates through multiple
intersecting antagonistic symbolic universes. This series opens connec-
tions between different cultural sites in which Lacanian work has devel-
oped in distinctive ways, in forms of work that question the idea that there
could be single correct reading and application. The Lines of the Symbolic
in Psychoanalysis series provides a reflexive reworking of psychoanalysis
that transmits Lacanian writing from around the world, steering a course
between the temptations of a metalanguage and imaginary reduction,
between the claim to provide a god’s eye view of psychoanalysis and the
idea that psychoanalysis must everywhere be the same. And the elabora-
tion of psychoanalysis in the symbolic here grounds its theory and practice
in the history and politics of the work in a variety of interventions that
touch the real.

Ian Parker
Manchester Psychoanalytic Matrix
Acknowledgements

The authors are especially grateful for Ian Parker’s support of this book.
Many thanks to Todd McGowan, Jean-Michel Rabaté, Adrian Johnston,
Ellie Ragland, and Stuart Murray for reviewing our work. We would
like to thank Ellie Duncan and Susannah Frearson at Routledge for
their help during the publishing process. We are also thankful to the
Lacan Toronto working group for a place to present some of the ear-
lier drafts of these chapters for discussion and feedback. Chapter Seven
was originally published in a special issue of English Studies in Canada
and has been revised and reprinted here with permissions. Thanks to
Concetta Principe for her editing and comments on an earlier version of
this chapter.
Chris Vanderwees is also thankful to MCL for all of her support. He is
especially grateful to JH for her kindness and encouragement.
Daniel Adleman thanks Kana Yamada and his parents, Sladen and
Susan, for their continued patience and support.
About the Authors

Daniel Adleman, PhD is an Assistant Professor of Writing and Rhetoric

at the University of Toronto. He teaches and writes primarily about the
intricate interrelationships between rhetoric, psychoanalysis, media,
and social change. He has recently published articles in Cultural Politics,
Cultural Studies, Canadian Review of American Studies, communication +1,
English Studies in Canada, and Canadian Literature. He has also published
book chapters in Crossing Borders (ARP, 2020), Utopia and Dystopia in
the Age of Trump (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019), and Performing Utopias
in the Contemporary Americas (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017). In 2012, he
co-founded the Vancouver Institute for Social Research, an ongoing
critical theory free school held at downtown Vancouver’s Or Gallery.
Chris Vanderwees, PhD, RP is a psychoanalyst, registered psychotherapist,
and clinical supervisor at St. John the Compassionate Mission in
Toronto, Canada. He is the co-editor of an essay collection (with Kristen
Hennessy), Psychoanalysis, Politics, Oppression and Resistance: Lacanian
Perspectives (Routledge, 2022). He is also an affiliate and research guest
of the Toronto Psychoanalytic Society and a member of the Lacanian
School of Psychoanalysis.
Abbreviations

AH Attitudes Toward History

ARM A Rhetoric of Motives
CS Counter-Statement
GM A Grammar of Motives
LSA Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and
Method
PC Permanence and Change: An Anatomy of Purpose
PLF The Philosophy of Literary Form
Introduction
Missed Encounters

The extraordinary development of the concept of rhetoric belongs to the

specific differences between the ancients and moderns: in recent times, this
art stands in some disrepute, and even when it is used, the best application
to which it is put by our moderns is nothing short of dilettantism and crude
empiricism.
– Friedrich Nietzsche, “Lecture Notes on Rhetoric”

Perspective by Congruity
This book began, appropriately, with a number of far-reaching dia-
logues between a practising psychoanalyst and an assistant professor of
writing and rhetoric. The topic that we stumbled into, quite organi-
cally, came acutely into relief over the course of several years of free-
associative discussions is the innumerable parallels and osmoses between
psychoanalysis and rhetoric. The premise of this book is that psychoa-
nalysis and rhetoric, when closely scrutinized, often appear, uncannily,
as each other’s doppelgangers and disciplinary siblings by virtue of their
shared interest in human motivation and their perennial struggles with
legitimacy (especially vis-à-vis institutional philosophy). In terms of
their content, form, and histories, the two disciplines seem to echo each
other, as well as philosophy, in a myriad of fascinating ways that call for
closer examination.
With these echoes in mind, we decided to stage an extended encounter
between these two would-be disciplinary bedfellows. Over the course
of our conversations about the influence of psychoanalysis on Kenneth
Burke’s approach to the “new rhetoric,” we also realized that the study
of rhetoric itself can and ought to inform psychoanalytic theory and
practice. The format of the book is therefore structured chiastically.
Daniel Adleman composed the first four chapters, which explore Burke’s
pioneering integration of Freudian psychoanalytic ideas into rhetorical
conversations. Chris Vanderwees wrote the second half of the book,
which highlights the underappreciated rhetorical dimensions of psycho-
analysis. Before launching into these lines of investigation, however,

DOI: 10.4324/9781003214069-1
2 Introduction
we will begin with an account of the parallel histories of rhetoric and
psychoanalysis.
In many ways, the undersung hero of this tale is Kenneth Burke. One
of the most groundbreaking figures in the entire rhetorical tradition,
Burke almost singlehandedly revived rhetoric and made a vociferous
case for its continued relevance to a contemporary world saturated with
advertising, propaganda, and narrative. Like Jacques Lacan, he contin-
ually underscores the work of his master (for Burke it was Aristotle,
just as for Lacan it was Freud) by way of an idiosyncratic admixture
of close-reading strategies and byzantine detours through more recent
innovations in economics, literature, anthropology, and philosophy. But
arguably, his least appreciated encounter was with psychoanalysis. As
an agile reader of Freud, Burke wove Freudian conceptual frameworks
into his own new-rhetorical formulations in a fashion that speaks to an
untapped wellspring of shared substance between psychoanalysis and the
rhetorical tradition.
Of course, one of the impediments to broad uptake of Burke’s
cross-pollination of rhetoric and psychoanalysis resides in the density of his
analyses and the seemingly insuperable mountain of homework required
to render his connections intelligible. His books and articles draw on the
entire history of rhetoric, philosophy, economics, historiography, psychol-
ogy, and literature. Even his most colloquial letters to the editor condense
a heady brew of cross-disciplinary intertextuality. This is a lot to ask any
readership to take on.
A relentlessly reflexive theorist, Burke describes such uncircumscribable
academic and journalistic undertakings as something like an interminable
conversation at a party:

Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive,
others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated dis-
cussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly
what it is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before
any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace
for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until
you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you
put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to
your defense; another aligns himself against you, to either the embar-
rassment or gratification of your opponent, depending upon the qual-
ity of your ally’s assistance. However, the discussion is interminable.
The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the
discussion still vigorously in progress.
(PLF 110–111)

Adopting Freud’s expression, Burke refers to the unending parlour parable

as the imaginary “primal scene” of rhetoric (“Postscript” 165). With this
 Introduction 3
primal scene in mind, we have decided to throw in our oar by attending
to Burke’s discussions of, with, and against psychoanalysis in this book,
which we hope will be simultaneously edifying and galvanizing.
At the outset, we must acknowledge that our lines of analysis barely
scratch the surface of the Burkean and Freudo-Lacanian icebergs. Still,
if our account of the texts and insertion of relevant contexts engenders
new pathways for a readership interested in connecting rhetorical con-
cerns and lexicons with psychoanalytic ones, we will consider our mission
accomplished. Nevertheless, even this modest task necessitates a vertigi-
nous archaeological dig. In the service of elucidating the import of Burke’s
innovations, we will return to the primal scene of rhetoric’s fraught rela-
tionship with philosophy, an issue that might resonate as uncannily famil-
iar to psychoanalytic scholars and practitioners. Once we have laid this
foundation, we will examine the history of psychoanalysis and its own
travails in relation to institutional psychology and philosophy.

Philosophy’s Scapegoats
Philosopher Simon Critchley observes that the Platonic art of philoso-
phy was founded on a campaign of systematic exclusion. In Tragedy, the
Greeks, and Us, Critchley examines the tangle of excommunications built
into “Plato’s Pharmacy.” According to Critchley, Plato’s Socrates mobi-
lizes philosophy as a form of “affect regulation” meant to shepherd the
Athenian polity in a rational direction by staving off uncontainable feel-
ings and pernicious influences. In Plato’s dialogues, Socrates expels the
new media technology of alphabetic writing, the relatively new form of
political organization known as democracy, excessively irrational music,
theatre, and myth to the margins of philosophy. These noxious activi-
ties, arts, and media technologies imperilled the rational scaffolding of
Plato’s imagined republic by unleashing the unbridled circulation of affect
(pathos) over reason (logos) and pandering to the tyrannical whims of the
masses, most of whom are naively oblivious to the immutable Good. From
the standpoint of Socratic philosophy, these dangerous influences threat-
ened to transform Athens into “a society of the spectacle that legitimates
itself through the production of theatrical or mediatic illusion that gives
the impression of legitimacy without any genuine substance” (Critchley
and Webster 15).
In The Phaedrus, Socrates vigorously opposes the wholesale adoption
of the new media technology of alphabetic script, which he character-
izes as a pharmakon, a drug that impedes students’ ability to philosophize.
When you dose them with this intoxicating mnemonic supplement, they
will be seduced into delusional experiences of grandeur: “You give your
disciples not truth but only the semblance of truth; they will be heroes of
many things and will have learned nothing; they will appear to be omnis-
cient and will generally know nothing” (Plato 274–275). In the 1950s
4 Introduction
and 1960s rhetorician Marshall McLuhan foreshadowed future currents
in post-structuralism and media studies by drawing attention to Plato’s
prejudice against the media technology of alphabetic script as inaugu-
rating the Western philosophical tradition’s technophobic orientation:
“Plato regarded the advent of writing as pernicious. In the Phaedrus he
tells us it would cause men to rely on their memories rather than their
wits” (McLuhan 162).
Years later, Jacques Derrida famously seized on Plato’s derogation of
writing as a synecdoche for Platonic philosophy’s general scapegoating
strategy. In “Plato’s Pharmacy,” he writes, “The incompatibility between
the written and the true is clearly announced at the moment Socrates starts
to recount the way in which men are carried out of themselves by pleasure,
become absent from themselves, forget themselves, and die to the thrill of
song” (Derrida 429).1 An opponent of theatre and poetry, Plato reinvented
theatricality as philosophical dialogue and replaced the smooth-talking
Odyssean epic hero with a shrewd Socratic philosopher who resists the
siren call of irrational affect by tying himself to the stern of his well-
crafted philosophical ship.2 It bears mentioning that the only way Plato
was able to choreograph this scene for philosophizing was by authoring
written texts that preserved his master’s admonitions against writing.
But another target, an insidious nemesis of philosophy, was also
clearly in the Platonic crosshairs. Although “sophistry” now connotes
deceit and hucksterism under the guise of sophistication, the sophists
were a group of wise men whose prestige and influence Socrates sought
to subvert. Their art of rhetoric (which is cognate with the word “ora-
tory”) was, as far as Socrates was concerned, was false imitation of phi-
losophy, just as writing was a false imitation of speech and narrative
fiction (be it in epic poetry or tragic theatre) was a false imitation of fact
(especially if the false imitation was enmeshed in an intoxicating musi-
cal arrangement). Sophism and philosophy share the root sophia, which
means something like critical intelligence. But whereas the Socratic
philosopher attunes his conversation to the immutable but evasive ide-
als of Truth, the sophist, according to Socrates, directs his discursive
antennae to the irrational elements of his audience’s character in order
to seduce them, thereby posturing at intellectual acuity without any
ethical or scholarly compass.
The most famous sophist was arguably Gorgias, who brought sophism
to Athens from Sicily. Gorgias was a dazzling orator who could improvise
a speech on most any topic. While the more ascetic wise-man Socrates
shunned the employment of his discipline for crude financial gain or
personal advancement, Gorgias delivered topical speeches for money and
seduced audiences with his ability to argue any issue from any position.
Gorgias not only embraced narrative myths and writing but also valorized
what Socrates could perceive only as nihilism and irrationality. One of
the countless ironies about the historical record is the sad fact that little of
 Introduction 5
Gorgias’ work has survived the millennia in spite of the fact that he har-
boured none of Socrates’ prejudices against the written word.
In his “Encomium of Helen,” Gorgias delights in the practice of tack-
ling the more unpopular and difficult side of a popular issue. Against the
grain of popular opinion, he contends that the much-maligned fictional
Helen of Troy should be exculpated for her role in the Trojan War, as
described by Homer. In the speech, which is both an exercise in persuasion
and a theoretical examination of the nature of persuasive speech itself, a
boisterous Gorgias claims that

The effect of speech upon the condition of the soul is comparable

to the power of drugs over the nature of bodies. For just as different
drugs dispel different secretions from the body, and some bring an
end to disease and others to life, so also in the case of speeches, some
distress, others delight, some cause fear, others make the hearers bold,
and some drug and bewitch the soul with a kind of evil persuasion.
(“Encomium” 27)

It is not clear whether Gorgias’ valorization of the rhetorical pharmakon

preceded Socrates’ deployment of it as an epithet to describe writing. It
just so happens that tropes pertaining to medicine, exercise, and wellness
abound in Socratic dialogues. In the Gorgias, in which Socrates is depicted
as debating with the master orator and his coterie, the master philosopher
describes philosophy as akin to medicine, which heals the sick, while rhet-
oric is more like mere “cookery,” which may taste good going down but
has negligible tonic qualities. It goes without saying that this was millen-
nia before the invention of chemotherapy or vaccines, so the distinction
was far from rigorous. Nevertheless, for Socrates, this disparity spoke to
rhetoric’s illegitimacy as a techne, what present-day scholars would call an
art or discipline.
In his much-overlooked lecture notes on rhetoric, Friedrich Nietzsche
insists that Plato’s exclusion of writing and narrative is inextricably wed-
ded to the exclusion of rhetoric. “The [Platonic] truth,” he writes, “can
be articulated neither in a written nor in a rhetorical form. The mythical
and the rhetorical are employed [only] when the brevity of time allows
for no scientific instruction” (Nietzsche 99). It should come as no surprise
that Socrates would seize on Gorgias’ double-edged characterization of
rhetoric as an intoxicating drug. Driven to purify philosophy and insulate
the dialectic against the toxic bewitchments of rhetoric, he insists that
Gorgias’ particular brand of oratory, like writing and theatre, seduces the
soul with unwieldy feelings that detract from its ability to attune itself to
the ideal Truth. Without such an eidetic sounding, sophism is merely a
hollow but deceptive pantomime of dialectical philosophical reasoning.
The most obvious instance of this hollow sophistry is “On Not-
Being or On Nature,” in which Gorgias anticipates both some of the
6 Introduction
heavier-handed late twentieth-century exercises in deconstruction and
the title syntax of every third liberal humanities paper produced since
1991. In this speech, Gorgias famously makes a mockery of philosophical
reasoning by turning it against empirical experience and the pretence of
fidelity to objective truth. The crux of the argument is as follows:

1 Nothing exists.
2 Even if something exists, nothing can be known about it.
3 Even if something can be known about it, knowledge about it cannot
be communicated to others.
4 Even if it can be communicated, it cannot be understood.

Socrates clearly took umbrage at this kind of parody of earnest philosoph-

ical methods and the philosopher’s Apollonian efforts to distinguish truth
from fiction. In The Gorgias, he therefore dedicates himself to putting
rhetoric in its place, a project that resurfaces in various interactions across
the Platonic dialogues.
Socrates insists that it is, in fact, rhetoric that does not exist, at least
not as a techne or discipline. Whereas the dialectical system of techniques
that constitute philosophy can be cultivated and transmitted, rhetoric is a
mere “knack,” a talent for getting one’s way. The persuasive orator, claims
Socrates, is simply a savvy and charismatic snake-oil salesman, a charla-
tan who is especially adept at identifying and pandering to his audience’s
prejudices. But charisma cannot be taught, and the immutable Truth has
nothing to do with indulging audiences’ arbitrary predilections and irra-
tional desires.
Slavoj Žižek points out that many of the Platonic dialogues are more
like scripted stage plays designed to highlight Socrates’ superior erudition.
“There is thus always a basic asymmetry in a dialogue,” writes Žižek.
“[And] does this asymmetry not break out openly in late Plato’s dialogues,
where we are no longer dealing with Socratic irony, but with one per-
son talking all the time, with his partner merely interrupting him from
time to time with ‘So it is, by Zeus!’, ‘How cannot it be so?’” (Disparities
992–993). By the end, his rivals concede to his arguments and Socratic
philosophy wins the day. But The Gorgias is arguably one of the “problem
plays” in that Socrates’ arguments largely miss their mark. This is especially
the case in his engagement with Gorgias’ disciple Callicles, who seems
to get the better of his philosophical interlocutor. Anticipating Friedrich
Nietzsche’s fin-de-siècle anti-Platonism, Callicles accuses Socrates of fab-
ricating a convenient monastic value system that has no real traction in
the affairs of the polis. Disparaging philosophy as a moribund children’s
game, he insists that philosophers are risibly “ignorant in the affairs of the
city.” Critchley observes that when Callicles refuses to play the philoso-
pher’s dialogical game, Socrates seems to betray his inability to adjust to
the changing coordinates of the conversation “and simply starts to speak
 Introduction 7
to himself and answer his own questions.” In the end, writes Critchley,
Socrates is content to turn the dialogue into a monologue and ends up
“talk[ing] to himself like a crazy person in the street” while an indifferent
Callicles scoffs at his unpersuasive self-justifying theatrics (Critchley 130).

Aristotle’s Defence of Rhetoric

In spite of his forebears’ reservations about rhetoric, Plato’s student Aristotle
somehow, improbably, became invested in the popular art of persuasion
and insisted on teaching it right alongside philosophy at his academy. His
Rhetoric is the first known systematic treatise on the discipline. But it is
so much more than that. Part psychology treatise, part political strategy
manual, and part oratorial handbook, Rhetoric responds to Socrates’ cri-
tiques and advocates for rhetoric’s legitimacy and importance as an equal
partner to the art of wisdom. If for Socrates, rhetoric is a counterfeit techne,
Aristotle widens the scope of technicity to account for this worthy “coun-
terpart” to philosophy. He begins with both a new definition of rheto-
ric and a new understanding of disciplinary artistry. “Rhetoric,” writes
Aristotle, “is the power of observing the means of persuasion on almost
any subject presented to us” (Aristotle 7). Its legitimacy does not reside in
its monopoly over a proper (even if imaginary) object but in its sophisti-
cated arsenal of techniques and concepts.
While Socrates’ assertion that rhetoric is not a proper techne hinges
on its lack of a distinct disciplinary object (such as Truth for philoso-
phy and the human body for medicine), Aristotle responds by seizing
on the rhetorical topos of definition. In this especially reflexive moment,
he brandishes rhetoric to interrogate Socrates’ convenient philosophi-
cal presuppositions: rhetoric is not only a proper system of techniques;
it is a totally different category of practice from philosophy in that it
involves the application of persuasion to a wide variety of practical para-
philosophical situations. He then proceeds to explore the application of
this discipline to situations like legal disputes, senatorial deliberations,
and public ceremonies. Where there is ambiguity about the correct line
of interpretation, rhetoric swoops in to participate in the conversation,
even occasionally trespassing on what had hitherto been deemed proper
philosophical territory.

The Rome Discourse

Both Athenian philosophy and rhetoric fell into disrepute in the Roman
empire on account of their association with Rome’s putatively effete and
inferior Athenian predecessor. The Roman rhetorician Cicero exhumed
and popularized the work of Aristotle and Plato and brought Athenian
thought back into the conversation, but this time with rhetoric assuming
the dominant station. Cicero called for a revised intellectual cartography
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