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ICE Manual of Construction Materials Volume 2 Metals
and Alloys Polymers Polymer Fibre Composites in Civil
Engineering Timber Glass Non Conventional Materials
Appendices 2nd Revised edition Edition G. Parke Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): G. Parke, N. Hewson, Gerard Parke, Nigel Hewson
ISBN(s): 9787937937944, 0727736434
Edition: 2nd Revised edition
File Details: PDF, 22.03 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
 ICE manual of
construction materials
Volume 2
Metals and alloys; Polymers; Polymer fibre composites in civil engineering;
Timber; Glass; Non-conventional materials; Appendices

Editor:
Mike Forde
University of Edinburgh

ice | manuals
Published by Thomas Telford Limited, 40 Marsh Wall, London E14 9TP, UK.
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First published 2009

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# Thomas Telford Limited 2009

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Index created by Indexing Specialists (UK) Ltd, Hove, East Sussex
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Latimer Trend & Company Ltd, Plymouth
Contents
Volume II Copper alloys 506
Brass 507
List of contributors ix Surface treatments 507
Bronze 509
SECTION 5: Metals and alloys Applications for copper and copper alloys 510
Section editor: Wei Sha Corrosion 514
Compatibility 515
Chapter 38: Metals and alloys: an introduction 465 Sustainability 517
Wei Sha References 518
Metals and alloys as construction materials 465 Further reading 518
Microstructure and properties of metals and alloys 465
Chapter 43: Zinc 519
Sustainability and recycling 467
A. Lyons
Section contents and authors 467
Introduction 519
Reference 468
Resources 519
Chapter 39: The nature and behaviour of alloys 469 Production 519
J. Robson Properties 519
Introduction 469 Soft solders 524
Microstructure of metals and alloys 469 Sustainability and recycling of zinc 524
Phase transformations 469 Zinc as a trace element 524
Defects in metals and alloys 470 Further information 524
Plastic deformation of metals and alloys 471 References 524
Strengthening of metals and alloys 472 Further reading 525
Other mechanical properties 473 Chapter 44: Titanium 527
Processing and forming of metals 474 N. Lowrie
Physical properties of metals and alloys 474 Sources and production 527
Corrosion of metals 475 Titanium alloy categorisation 529
Alloy selection 476 Mechanical properties of titanium alloys 531
Key points 476 Corrosion resistance 532
References 476 Titanium in construction 532
Further reading 477 Emerging technologies 536
Chapter 40: Ferrous metals 479 Reference 536
A. Lyons Further reading 536
Introduction 479 Chapter 45: Structural steel 537
Cast iron 479 R. M. Lawson
Wrought iron 481 Introduction 537
Steel 482 Technical characteristics of steel 540
References 490 Structural steel 544
Further reading 491 Stainless steel 551
Strip steel specification 555
Chapter 41: Aluminium 493 Corrosion protection 557
D. A. Harris Fire protection 562
Introduction 493 Site installation 564
Aluminium alloys 493 Tolerances 567
Aluminium finishing processes 496 References 568
Examples of the use of aluminium products in construction 498
Recycling of aluminium used in construction 500 SECTION 6: Polymers
Sustainability of aluminium used in construction 501 Section editor: Christopher Hall
Summary and future trends 502
References 502 Chapter 46: Polymeric materials: an introduction 571
Further reading 502 V. Koutsos
Introduction 571
Chapter 42: Copper 505 Definitions, structure and types 571
P. Webster and N. Hay Specific examples and chemical structure 573
Introduction 505 The polymer solid state 575

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com v

 ice | manuals Contents

References 577 Quality assessment 638

Bibliography – Further reading 577 Future trends 639
References 639
Chapter 47: Polymer engineering 579
C. Hall Chapter 54: Mechanical properties of FRP composites 641
Introduction 579 T. Yu, J. G. Teng and J. F. Chen
Polymerisation reactions 579 Introduction 641
Compounding of polymers 580 Micromechanics of a lamina 641
Processing methods 580 Stress–strain relationship of a lamina 643
Composites 580 Classical lamination theory 645
Cellular polymers 581 Additional information 647
Sheet, mesh and grid 581 References 647
Emulsions and gels 581
Chapter 55: Failure criteria for FRP composites 649
Coatings and paints 581
T. Yu, J. G. Teng and J. F. Chen
Reference 583
Introduction 649
Further reading 583
Failure criteria for a lamina 649
Chapter 48: Engineering properties of polymers 585 Failure analysis of a laminate 651
V. Koutsos 585 Interlaminar failure of a laminate 652
Introduction 585 Additional information 653
Mechanical properties 585 References 653
Thermal properties 589
Chapter 56: Codes and standards 655
Permeability 589
G. Sims and W. R. Broughton
Environmental resistance and durability 590
Introduction 655
References 591
Polymer composites – material standards 655
Bibliography – Further reading 591
Product standards 659
Chapter 49: Polymer uses in civil engineering 593 Design guides for composites in construction 662
C. Hall Future trends 664
Introduction 593 References 664
Structural plastics and composites 593 Appendix: Other standards and codes 664
Pipework 593 Further reading 665
Membranes and geosynthetics 594
Chapter 57: Adhesives for externally bonded FRP reinforcement 667
Coatings 595
A. Hutchinson
Adhesives and sealants 596
Introduction 667
Expansion bearings and anti-vibration mounts 596
Adhesive bonding technology 667
Chemical grouts for soils 596
Surface preparation 669
References 597
Strengthening of concrete, metallic and timber structures using
Further reading 597
pre-cured composites 669
SECTION 7: Polymer fibre composites in civil engineering Strengthening of structures using in-situ lamination techniques 672
Section editor: Len Hollaway Summary and future trends 672
References 672
Chapter 50: Polymer fibre composites: an Introduction 599
L. C. Hollaway Chapter 58: Applications of fibre-reinforced polymer
Introduction 599 composite materials 675
The development of fibre/matrix composites in construction 600 L. C. Hollaway
References 601 Introduction 675
The building industry 676
Chapter 51: Characterisation of fibre and matrix materials used The civil engineering industry 676
in construction 603 References 689
L. C. Hollaway Appendix: Design codes, codes and specifications for the design
Introduction 603 of FRP composites in structural engineering 692
The matrices for fibre-reinforced polymer composites 603
Chapter 59: Recycling of FRP materials in construction 695
The physical properties of thermosetting polymers 607
S. Halliwell
In-service properties of the thermosetting polymers 609
Introduction 695
The mechanical properties of the thermosetting polymers 610
Legislation 695
The fibre 611
Waste minimisation 697
Mechanical properties of fibres 615
Reuse of FRP materials 697
In-service properties 615
Recovery of FRP waste 698
References 617
Recycling technologies 698
Chapter 52: Advanced polymer composites 619 Disposal 702
L. C. Hollaway Future and emerging technologies 702
Introduction 619 Summary 703
The properties of composite material 619 References 704
Mechanical properties of FRP composites 623 Further reading 704
The in-service properties of polymer composites 626
Future work on FRP materials 630 SECTION 8: Timber
References 630 Section editor: Keith Crews
Fire codes and standards 632 Chapter 60: Timber engineering: an introduction 707
Chapter 53: Testing and evaluation of polymer composites 633 A. Harte
W. R. Broughton and G. D. Sims Introduction 707
Introduction 633 Basic properties of wood 707
Tension 633 Physical properties of wood 709
Compression 635 Mechanical properties of wood 710
Shear 636 Sustainability 714
Flexure 637 References 715
Fracture toughness 638 Further reading 715

vi www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers

 Contents ice | manuals

Chapter 61: Timber products and manufacturing processes 717 Chapter 68: Production techniques – a brief history 793
F. Lam J. Colvin
Introduction 717 Raw materials, melting and annealing 793
Round wood 717 Roman window glass 794
Timber or lumber 717 Cylinder glass 794
Engineered wood products 720 Crown glass 794
Conclusion 725 Sheet glass 794
References 726 Plate glass 795
Further reading 726 Rolled glass 795
Wired glass 795
Chapter 62: Effects of moisture 727
Float glass 795
H. Bier
Multiple glazing 796
Introduction 727
Laminated glass 798
Water and wood 727
Toughened glass 800
Shrinkage and swelling 729
Heat-strengthened glass 801
Water, wood and durability 732
Heat soaked toughened glass 801
Construction practices 732
Enamelled glass 802
Conclusions 737
Coated glass 804
References 737
Fire-resistant glass 806
Chapter 63: Understanding timber structural connection systems 739
J. Broughton and J. Custódio Chapter 69: Strength and durability of glass 807
Overview of connection types 739 C. Jofeh
Mechanical connections 739 Introduction 807
Glued connections 744 Physical properties of glass, compared with other materials 807
Adhesives types 747 Durability 807
References 756 Design approaches 808
Further reading 759 Safety 809
Chapter 64: Hazards, specification and service life performance 761 Falling glass 810
J.-W. van de Kuilen Rules of thumb 810
Introduction 761 Laminated glass 811
Hazard types 761 The buckling of laminated glass 812
Timber specification 765 Insulating glass units 812
Application classes 766 Concluding remarks 812
Strength grades and classes 767 References 812
Surface finishes and sizes 769 Further reading 813
Service life performance and design for durability 769
Examples 770 Chapter 70: Common glass products 815
References 771 J. Colvin
Basic glass to EN 572 815
Chapter 65: Case studies: current uses of timber in the UK 773 Annealed glass 815
J. Bregulla Toughened glass to BS EN 12150 816
Introduction 773 Heat-strengthened glass to BS EN 1863 816
Case study 1: the ‘Lighthouse’ 773 Heat-soaked toughened glass to BS EN 14179 817
Why timber? 774 Enamelled glass 817
Case study 2: multi-storey timber structures 776 Laminated glass to BS EN ISO 12543 and BS EN 14449 817
Case study 3: Savill Building, Windsor Great Park 779 Coated glass to BS EN 1096 818
Summary 782 Insulating glass units to BS EN 1279 819
References 782 Fire-resistant glass to BS EN 357 819
SECTION 9: Glass Chapter 71: Characteristics and problems of glass products 821
Section editor: Chris Jofeh J. Colvin
Chapter 66: Glass in construction: an introduction 783 General glass defects 821
J. Colvin Annealed glass 821
Light relief 783 Clear float glass 822
Rationality or mystique 783 Toughened glass and heat strengthened glass 822
Definition of glass 783 Coated glass 824
Sustainability and recycling 784 Laminated glass 824
Further reading 784 Insulating glass units 825
British Standards relating to glass in buildings 827
Chapter 67: What is glass? 785
J. Colvin
Silicate glass 785 SECTION 10: Non-conventional materials
Glass as a material 785 Section editor: Peter Walker
Stress and strain 786
Homogeneity and isotropy 787 Chapter 72: Low-carbon natural building materials 831
The effect of the glass structure on its properties 787 P. Walker
Tensile strength levels 787 Introduction 831
Surface flaws 787 Earth as a building material 832
Scratches, shells, chips and vents 788 Building with lime 839
Glass and water 788 Hemp-lime building 841
Static fatigue 788 Other renewable materials in construction 843
Glass strength testing 789 Carbon benefits of renewable materials 845
Compressive strength 789 Future potential 846
Toughened glass 789 Acknowledgements 846
Fracture 790 References 846
References 792 Further reading 847

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com vii
 ice | manuals Contents

Chapter 73: Straw bale construction – state of the art 849 Chapter 75: Architectural fabrics 873
M. Offin, S. Vardy and C. MacDougall W. Lewis
Introduction 849 Introduction 873
Construction details 850 Fabric structure and properties 873
Performance of straw bale assemblies 854 Patterning 876
Plaster structural performance 854 Main categories of architectural fabrics 876
Individual bale structural performance 855 Factors to consider in the choice of fabric 882
Bale wall structural performance 855 Future trends 884
Case study – the 4C’s food bank and thrift store (adapted from References 884
Vardy et al., 2006) 857
The future of straw bale construction 858
References 859
APPENDICES
Chapter 74: Alternative materials for construction 861 Appendix A: Fire performance of commonly used building
S. Aghedo and C. Baillie materials 887
Introduction 861 D. Hopkin
Source of natural fibres 861 Introduction 887
Sources of waste plastic 862 References 893
Development of hemp fibre/bale wrap composites for construction 863 Further reading 893
Harvesting, retting and extraction of hemp 864
Waste plastic preparation process 864
Appendix B: Guide to the recycled content of mainstream
Fabrication of composites 864
Mechanical properties of hemp fibre composites 866 construction products: Waste & Resources Action
Programme (WRAP) 895
Moisture-resistance properties of hemp fibre composites 869
Introduction 895
Examples of building products 870
Conclusion 870
References 870 Index to volume I and II 899

viii www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
Section 5: Metals and alloys
Section editor: Wei Sha
 ice | manuals

doi: 10.1680/mocm.35973.0465
Chapter 38

Metals and alloys: an introduction CONTENTS

Metals and alloys as

Wei Sha School of Planning, Architecture and Civil Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK construction materials 465
Microstructure and properties
of metals and alloys 465
This chapter introduces metals and alloys as a type of construction material, including
Sustainability and recycling 467
discussions of their background and use in construction, their mechanical and
Section contents and authors 467
physical properties, microstructural factors that influence properties, and recycling and
Reference 468
sustainability issues associated with metals and alloys. It references chapters in the
Metals and Alloys Section of the Manual of Construction Materials and gives a brief
overview of the coverage in order to point readers towards those chapters. The
chapter serves as a starting point to a practitioner researching the properties and
usefulness of metals and alloys to construction applications.

Metals and alloys as construction non-ferrous metals and alloys has been more rapid than
that of iron and steel, although this is mainly to catch up
materials with rather than replace the ferrous metals.
In terms of volume or weight, metals and alloys as con-
struction materials are well behind concrete. However, Microstructure and properties of
their strength, ductility, toughness, surface properties,
weldability, electrical and thermal conductivity, and many metals and alloys
other properties unique to this group of materials, make
metals and alloys indispensible materials for construction. Microstructural defects and their
These materials are used in houses and other buildings, relations to strength and ductility
structural steelwork including buildings, bridges, offshore The properties of metals and alloys which are unique to this
structures and piling, road structures, and does not require group of materials, as opposed to say ceramics and poly-
the extensive machinery necessary for completing any mers are due to their microstructure, starting from the
major construction project, for example cranes, trucks small, atomic scale of metallic bonds, up to their grain
and concrete mixers. and phase structures, usually in the micrometre scale,
A variety of metals are used. The predominant type is, of hence the term microstructure. In metals, there are free
course, the ferrous metals, i.e. iron and steel. Within this electrons shared by many atoms, as against the ionic
type, there are cast iron, wrought iron, carbon steels and bond or covalent bond in ceramics and polymers. Such
alloy steels, differentiated mainly by their composition. free electrons are the cause of the metals’ electrical and
Among them, carbon steels form the basis of structural thermal conductivity. This unique type of bonding also
steelwork as well as concrete reinforcing bars, and thus determines the high strength and ductility of metals and
are used in the largest quantity among all types of metals. alloys.
Although metals were used extensively from ancient In materials science, materials are broadly divided into
times, as indicated by history terminologies such as the structural materials and functional materials. The applica-
Bronze and Iron Age, the scale of their use was dramatically tion of the first group is based on the material strength,
increased with the modern steelmaking technology. while for the second group it is based on electrical and elec-
Although the development of steelmaking technology has tronic, magnetic and optical properties. The most widely
stabilised in the last few decades, the processing techniques used properties of metals and alloys for construction
for steels as well as for iron have continued to develop and purposes are their strength and ductility, for the so-called
improve to great effect, including thermomechanical structural materials. In physical metallurgy and materials
processing, heat treatment, and surface engineering. science, the strength and ductility are explained mainly
Among the non-ferrous metals, aluminium, zinc, lead, with two microstructural terms, namely grain structures
copper and tin are traditionally widely used. Less widely and dislocation structures.
used are nickel and chromium. There are also new metallic Microscopically, with the exception of amorphous
materials for construction, for example titanium for clad- materials not normally used in construction, a piece of
ding purposes. Although far from widely used, titanium metal is packed with small crystals, although the exterior
offers an attractive alternative, due mainly to its aesthetic of the metal does not normally show features of crystal
features and corrosion resistance. The development of that we normally associate with geological minerals. The

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 465
 Metals and alloys

P M

Burgers vector

Q N

P P

Burgers
M vector M

Q
Q

N
N

Figure 1 The lattice arrangements of edge (top right) and screw (bottom right) dislocations compared to perfect crystal structures

reason why we cannot see the crystals (or even signs of locations (but not too many because then they will tangle
them) with the naked eye is because they are very tiny, up and be hard to move), plastic deformation becomes
usually around the scale of 10
6 m (one micrometre) but easier because, instead of moving the whole crystal planes
they could be manipulated by special treatment to down in one go, it is much easier to push each dislocation to
to 10
9 m (one nanometre). Recent research has resulted move. This is very similar to moving carpets by first
in the development of nanostructures in bulk metallic forming a kink, and then pushing the kink from one end
materials (Bhadeshia, 2005). of the carpet to another. Worms move in the same way,
These tiny crystals are packed densely with no gaps too.
between them, and are only separated by grain boundaries. The deformation mechanism through the movement of
The grain boundaries have significant effects on metal prop- dislocations is the reason why metals have good ductility.
erties such as strength, ductility, atom diffusion and Grain boundaries, on the other hand, limit the movement
conductivity. of dislocations because it is not always easy for dislocations
For the perfect crystal structure to deform plastically, to traverse across them. By controlling the quantity and size
extremely large forces are required, in order for the of the grain boundaries and dislocations, virtually un-
atomic planes to slide against each other. Imagine even limited range of property combinations can be achieved.
the force required to pull from one end and slide a large A grain boundary caused by the discontinuity of crystals
carpet on a floor, in one single movement. The friction is a 2D defect, and a dislocation caused by atomic plane
force between the carpet and the floor is huge. The sliding misalignment is a 1D defect. In addition to 1D and 2D
of atomic planes has similar difficulties, only a million defects, there are 0D defects, the so-called point defects,
times harder because of the tight bonding between atoms usually in the form of vacancies, i.e. lattice spots, but not
next to each other in adjacent atomic planes. In real occupied by any atom. The vacancies determine the rate
metals, however, there is a common type of defect called of diffusion because metal atoms diffuse by jumping into
dislocations (Figure 1) that completely change the an adjacent vacancy. There are 3D defects, too, in the
mechanism of plastic deformation. form of inclusion and precipitation for example, which
Dislocations appear in large numbers in metals and weakens or strengthens the metallic materials depending
alloys, some formed naturally during cooling after melting on their characteristics. As it transpires, atomic and
during the alloy manufacture, and some formed during micro-scale defects in metals are far more important and
deformation processing such as rolling and forging, and useful than the perfect crystal structure.
some even formed during the plastic deformation process The physical metallurgy and materials science of metals
which is facilitated by them in the first place. With dis- and alloys are described in many metallurgy textbooks. A

466 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Metals and alloys: an introduction

comprehensive source of information for metals is the ASM adds a significant amount of cost. In recent years, there
Handbook series published by ASM International. For free have been large advances in fire engineering research and
online information, the Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org) development, resulting in some reduction of fire protec-
contains many relevant articles, although they may not be tion cost in structural steelwork.
as authoritative.

Corrosion and fire resistance Sustainability and recycling

The most commonly used metals, i.e. structural steels, are Metals and alloys are champions in the race towards
one order of magnitude stronger than concrete, and even maximum sustainability and recycling. In principle, all
much stronger than other construction materials such as metals and alloys can be recycled, usually up towards
timber and bitumen. However, some other properties of 100%, although in practice, this may be achieved only
metals and alloys also contribute, or sometimes limit their with considerable cost.
use in the construction industry. The fundamental reason for the excellent recyclability of
One such property is corrosion. Most metals react with this class of materials is, in the author’s view, that metals
oxygen, i.e. they are oxidised in air. When moisture is originally appear in earth not in their pure form but in
present, e.g. under water or in a high humidity environ- compound form with, for instance, oxygen, i.e. oxides.
ment, the combined effect of water and oxygen can cause These are ores. Metals need to be extracted from the ores,
corrosion. This is a major problem for structural steels, i.e. separated from the compounded or mixed elements,
and a high proportion of construction cost of structural which is a long and costly process. After a metal is used,
steelwork is on corrosion prevention. However, other if it has changed from its pure state, it may be contami-
metals, such as aluminium, titanium and stainless steel, nated, or mixed or compounded with other materials, it
have means of overcoming the corrosion problem, by may be corroded or rusted and it may be oxidised.
forming a thin and stable protective layer on their surface. However, in principle, the goal of returning such used, or
The prevention or minimisation of corrosion does not non-pure metal to its pure form (i.e. from old to new) is
always rely on using non-metals which do not have corro- fundamentally no different from extracting the metal
sion problems themselves, such as polymer-based paints. from ore. The process may be very different however, but
One of the most effective anti-corrosion measures is to it is in many cases cheaper. This, plus the pressure from
use zinc and, to a lesser extent, aluminium, two of the the vanishing resources that we are facing, make the idea
most active metals. There is a wide variety of protection of recycling metals very attractive.
techniques based on the galvanising action between zinc/ One major example is the use of the electric arc furnace
aluminium and steels, because zinc/aluminium, when in for steel making. This process uses scrap steel as its raw
contact with steels, will corrode first and in fact eliminate material, and produces high-quality alloy steels, for
the corrosion of steels. Such techniques include zinc example stainless steel, a product used heavily for construc-
(alloy) galvanising, metal spraying and painting containing tion. The process has been in use for more than 100 years,
zinc or aluminium. Metals can be used to protect other long, long before the word ‘sustainability’ was invented.
metals. This was because metallurgists and steel users knew the
Another consideration, usually to the disadvantage of recyclability of steels, and the value of it. This same example
using metals in construction, in particular structural also illustrates the cost factor mentioned above, because an
steels, is related to the properties of metals at high electric arc furnace operates with a high consumption of
temperatures, for example in a fire. The reason for the electricity, and the cost of running it is higher than the
usually relatively poor metal performance at elevated other route of steel making, the basic oxygen furnace,
temperatures is related to its metallic bond. The high which does not use scrap steel as the main source of raw
thermal conductivity is as important as the loss of material. Despite the cost factor, a higher and higher frac-
strength itself, because it permits heat to reach and spread tion of metals and alloys is being recycled, due to environ-
over metal parts quickly. This is a particular issue for mental regulations and sustainability issues and concerns.
structural steelwork, the issue of its fire resistance.
Although the concrete strength would have dropped even
more heavily at a given temperature than steel, the low Section contents and authors
thermal conductivity and the bulkiness of the concrete This section of the ICE Manual of Construction Materials
mean that a concrete structure does not usually have any gives detailed information on the class of materials of
fire resistance problem, simply because the heat does not metals and alloys. Before dealing with individual types,
reach the inside of concrete. On the other hand, structural the section starts with describing the nature and behaviour
steelwork, with some exceptions of, for example, open car of alloys, which essentially covers basic metallurgy, needed
park structures, will always need fire protection, which for understanding and appreciating the properties of metals

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 467
 Metals and alloys

and alloys. This chapter is not about specific types of are written by Arthur Lyons. His textbook, Materials for
metals, it intends to give the basic metallurgical theory Architects & Builders, is widely used by universities for
that is applicable to all metals and alloys. teaching of their Construction Materials module, including
The chapters that follow describe the most common that run at my own university, coordinated by myself.
types of metals and alloys used in construction, including However, for the Manual, Dr Lyons is able to elaborate
ferrous metals, aluminium, copper and zinc. In addition, to a much more advanced level compared with the
an up-and-coming metal not previously used in construc- undergraduate textbook. The chapters on aluminium and
tion, titanium, is discussed in Chapter 44. The focus is on copper are written by respective top specialists in these
the properties and uses of these metals, so that the reader metals, namely David Harris of Aluminium Advocates
can apply the knowledge straight to the practical use of and Peter Webster of the Copper Development Associa-
them in the design and maintenance of structures and tion. Neil Lowrie, a technologist at NAMTEC, has
construction projects. contributed the chapter on titanium (NAMTEC is the
Traditionally and for the foreseeable future, in terms of National Metals Technology Centre in the UK).
tonnage, structural steels are dominant among metals and The last chapter of the Metals and Alloys Section is
alloys used in construction, so the final chapter con- written by Mark Lawson, a most familiar name in struc-
centrates on the application and design issues of struc- tural steels in the UK and beyond, for his influential
tural steels. The aim of this chapter is for the reader to work at the Steel Construction Institute (SCI). Technical
gain an advanced knowledge of these materials, and be publications on structural steel design produced by SCI
able to apply this knowledge directly in civil engineering under his direction are widely used by consulting engineers
construction. as well as in the relevant professional and higher education
I am extremely proud to say that we have got a top, sectors. SCI also has a strong influence in British Standards
distinguished team of British authors for these chapters and now Eurocodes for structural steelwork.
and topics, each a world authority in his own field. Chapter Each of these authors is a fellow or member of the
39, ‘The nature and behaviour of alloys’, is written by Dr relevant professional bodies in the UK.
Joseph Robson, a Senior Lecturer in Physical Metallurgy I am therefore confident that this section of the Manual of
at the University of Manchester. Among other professional Construction Materials forms a most authoritative guide of
achievements and credentials, he is an associate editor of metals and alloys for construction practitioners.
Materials Characterization, an international journal
published by the International Metallographic Society on Reference
materials structure and behaviour.
Bhadeshia H. K. D. H. Bulk Nanocrystalline Steels. Ironmaking
As Chapter 40 is concerned with different types of metals, and Steelmaking, 2005, 32, 405–410.
we have several authors, writing about each type of metal
and its alloys. The chapters on ferrous metals and zinc

468 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 ice | manuals

doi: 10.1680/mocm.35973.0469
Chapter 39

The nature and behaviour of alloys CONTENTS

Introduction 469
Joseph Robson School of Materials, University of Manchester, UK
Microstructure of metals and
alloys 469
The performance of metal alloys is understood by studying the relationships Phase transformations 469
between composition, processing, structure and properties. Knowledge and control Defects in metals and alloys 470
of structure on the microscopic scale is critical in optimising macroscopic Plastic deformation of
metals and alloys 471
performance, producing the versatile range of alloys available today.
Strengthening of metals
and alloys 472
Other mechanical properties 473
Processing and forming
of metals 474
Physical properties of
metals and alloys 474
Corrosion of metals 475
Alloy selection 476
Key points 476
References 476
Further reading 477

Introduction The arrangement of atoms in a crystalline material can be

defined by its ‘unit cell’. The unit cell is the minimum
Metal alloys form one of the most widely used classes of
volume of material that fully characterises the crystal struc-
materials in engineering applications. Metals are rarely
ture and symmetry. The structure of any (perfect) crystal
used in their pure elemental form, but are combined into
can be generated by repetition of its unit cell in three dimen-
mixtures of elements known as alloys. Alloying is the delib-
sions. The metals that form the basis of the common
erate addition of extra elements to a pure metal to improve
engineering alloys have crystal structures that can be char-
some aspect of its properties. In addition to deliberate
acterised by one of three unit cells. Figure 1 shows how the
alloying elements, all commercial metals also contain
atoms are arranged in each of these cells.
impurity elements that are uneconomical to remove
From an engineering perspective, the crystal structure of
during refinement and processing. Alloying can produce
alloys is important, since it is critical in determining many
large improvements in properties. For example, steels and
of the macroscopic properties. For example, aluminium is
aluminium alloys can have strength levels that are over an
easily deformed at room temperature without fracturing,
order of magnitude greater than the base metal (iron and
whereas magnesium will crack if deformed under the
aluminium respectively) in pure form.
same conditions. This can be largely attributed to the
The engineering properties of metals, such as strength,
hexagonal crystal structure of magnesium compared with
toughness and corrosion resistance, are controlled by the
the face-centred cubic crystal structure of aluminium, as
structure of the metal on the nano- (10
9 m) and micro-
discussed later.
(10
6 m) structural scale. In particular, it is through manip-
ulation of alloy structure at the micro-scale (the microstruc-
ture) that required properties are obtained. The metallurgist
Phase transformations
therefore has to consider the relationships between alloy In many alloys, several different crystal structures (allo-
composition, processing, microstructure and properties. tropes) are possible. The most stable crystal structure will
This chapter will introduce the most important of these then depend on the external conditions (such as tempera-
relationships for commonly used engineering alloys. ture and pressure). Alloying additions can also influence
the relative stability of the different allotropes. If the condi-
tions are changed so that the most stable crystal structure
Microstructure of metals and alloys changes, the atoms will attempt to rearrange from the old
Structural alloys are all crystalline at an atomic scale; that to the new stable crystal structure. The different crystalline
is, their atoms are arranged in a regular, ordered way. forms that an alloy can exist in are referred to as different
The individual crystals (which are usually referred to as phases, and so the change from one crystal structure to
grains) are typically less than a millimetre in size, so that another is known as a phase transformation. Phase transfor-
bulk metals are an aggregate of many millions of grains mations are exploited in the processing of alloys to obtain
(i.e. polycrystalline). the required microstructure. The best-known example is

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 Metals and alloys

60°

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 Unit cells showing the arrangement of atoms in (a) face-centred cubic, (b) body-centred cubic and (c) hexagonal close-packed crystal
structures. The atoms outlined in bold define one of the planes of closest atomic packing in each structure

the phase transformation that occurs in iron and steel Particle precipitation refers to the formation of (usually)
(steels are based on the iron–carbon system, with additional micron- or sub-micron-sized particles of a second phase
alloying elements). At room temperature, the most stable in the initial (matrix) phase. Precipitation occurs because
crystal structure for iron is body-centred cubic (BCC). the solubility of alloying elements in the matrix phase
This phase is called ferrite. When heated above 9108C decreases with decreasing temperature. When the solubility
(1183 K), the face-centred cubic (FCC) structure becomes is exceeded, there will be a driving force for precipitate
more stable, and a phase transformation occurs. The formation. Precipitation involves alloying elements leaving
FCC iron phase is called austenite. the matrix phase and forming particles of a different phase
The presence of additional elements, as in steel, adds to with distinct composition and structure. This process takes
the complexity of the phase transformations that can time, however, and precipitation can be suppressed by
occur. Steels are often processed with the iron in the high- cooling very rapidly. In this case, excess alloying elements
temperature (austenite) form before being cooled to room can be trapped in the matrix phase. These elements will
temperature, where the ferrite phase is stable. Austenite then form precipitate particles over time, and heating can
has a higher solubility for carbon than ferrite (approxi- accelerate this process by enhancing atomic movement
mately 100 times more carbon can be dissolved in austenite (diffusion). This method can be used to produce a fine
than ferrite, by weight). This means that for iron to form and uniform distribution of precipitate particles that can
stable ferrite on cooling, carbon must be rejected from the provide a large strengthening effect (precipitation strength-
transforming austenite. This carbon forms a new phase, ening) (AluMATTER, 2007). Precipitation strengthening is
which in simple (plain carbon) steels has the chemical exploited in many aluminium alloys, steels, and other alloy
formulae Fe3C, and is called cementite. If other alloying systems.
elements are present, they can also form new phases with
the excess carbon, known as carbides.
If cooling is very rapid (such as obtained if steel is Defects in metals and alloys
quenched into water) then there is usually insufficient The crystals that are generated by stacking together unit
time for the movement of atoms that is required to re- cells, as described in the previous section, are perfect;
arrange the austenite crystal structure to the two new there are no irregularities in such a structure, and each
crystal structures of ferrite and cementite. In this case, a part of the crystal is identical to every other part. In reality,
series of different phase transformations is possible, real crystals are not perfect but contain defects. These
forming phases that give different microstructures and defects play a crucial role in controlling the properties of
properties. The ability to exploit the phase transformations metals and alloys.
from austenite to give a range of different structures is a Two types of defect are of particular importance in metals
great advantage of steels. Apart from iron/steel, other and alloys: vacancies and dislocations. A vacancy is a ‘gap’ in
important industrial metals that transform from one crystal the crystal structure, where there is no atom where one would
structure at high temperature to another at lower tempera- be expected (Figure 2(a)). Vacancies are important in the
ture include titanium and zirconium. The stable structure process of atomic diffusion (the movement of atoms within
for both of these is hexagonal close packed (HCP) at the crystal structure). Any one of the atoms that surround
room temperature, but BCC at high temperature. the vacancy can move by jumping into the vacant site, leaving
Another type of phase transformation that is widely a vacant site behind (the atom and vacancy swap positions).
exploited in engineering alloys is particle precipitation. Another atom can then jump into the newly vacant site and so

470 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
 The nature and behaviour of alloys

and, if the load is removed, the specimen will return to its

original dimensions. However, above a certain applied
stress (the yield stress) the specimen starts to permanently
(plastically) deform. It is found that when the surface of a
suitable chosen crystal is examined after such a test, it is
characterised by a series of bands, close to 458 to the axis
along which the crystal was pulled, and these bands form
steps at the surface of the crystal (Figure 3(a) shows these
slip bands in a single crystal of cadmium after deformation).
(a) (b) Furthermore, it is found that the planes defined by the slip
Figure 2 Schematic showing (a) a vacancy in a crystal structure (b) an bands (slip planes) correspond to the planes of closest
edge dislocation: the atoms outlined in bold form the extra half plane, atomic packing in the crystal structure. For certain crystal
and the line where this ends inside the crystal defines the dislocation line structures and orientations, it may be that none of the
planes of closest atomic packing lie close to 458 to the
on. A vacancy is one type of point defect since it is localised to axis along which the tensile load is applied. In such cases,
a single point in the crystal structure. it is often found that failure will occur by brittle fracture,
Dislocations are an example of a line defect, creating a rather than progressive plastic deformation.
disruption to the crystal lattice around a line rather than a Several important conclusions can be drawn from these
single point. Figure 2(b) shows an example of one type of observations. First, deformation occurs by shearing of the
dislocation, an edge dislocation. An edge dislocation is crystal along well-defined slip planes. This is true even if a
caused by the presence of an extra portion of a plane of purely tensile or compressive load is applied, since such a
atoms that terminates within the crystal (commonly referred load will generate a shear stress (which is a maximum at
to as an extra ‘half plane’). The atoms that form the extra 458 to the axis along which the tensile load is applied – the
half plane are circled in blue in Figure 2(b). Other dislocation tensile axis). Second, deformation occurs only on certain
types, such as screw and mixed dislocations are also possible well-defined planes in the crystal structure and in certain
(Hull and Bacon, 2001). Dislocations play a key role in the well-defined directions. These directions and planes are
deformation of metals and alloys; deformation, usually known as slip directions and slip planes respectively. It is
occurs primarily by dislocation motion. found that the slip planes usually correspond to the planes
on which the atoms in the crystal are most closely packed
Plastic deformation of metals and together, with the slip directions corresponding to the direc-
tions along which the atoms are in closest contact.
alloys Figure 3(b) shows four unit cells of the FCC crystal struc-
It is possible to prepare and deform large single crystals of ture. The slip directions and slip planes for this crystal
metals. For example, consider a single crystal specimen structure are marked. It can be seen that there are four
pulled in tension. At first, deformation occurs elastically possible slip planes, each containing three possible slip

100 mm
σ
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3 (a) A cadmium single crystal after deformation showing slip bands at the surface. (b) The close-packed planes and directions in the FCC crystal
structure that define the 12 slip systems. (c) Schematic showing how an applied tensile stress
produces a shear stress  on a slip plane inclined close
to 458 to the tensile axis

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 471
 Metals and alloys

directions. This gives 12 combinations (4  3), and each material can be subjected without permanent plastic defor-
combination is known as a slip system. Therefore, metals mation. There are several ways that the yield strength of a
with FCC crystal structures have a total of 12 possible metal can be increased, both by alloying additions and
slip systems. Metals with BCC crystal structures also have processing. Fundamentally, each of these methods works
at least 12 possible slip systems, whereas metals with HCP by making dislocation movement more difficult, thereby
crystal structures may have as few as three slip systems. increasing the resolved shear stress that is required to
This is of practical importance, since the ease with which initiate plastic deformation.
a metal can be deformed or shaped without cracking is
strongly dependent on the number of available slip systems Grain size strengthening
that can accommodate deformation. So far, the deformation of a single crystal has been
Plastic deformation will initiate on a slip plane in a parti- considered. In practice, bulk metals are nearly always
cular slip direction when the shear stress on that plane, polycrystalline and consist of aggregates of many crystals
resolved in the slip direction, exceeds a critical value. For (grains) in different orientations. The boundaries between
a crystal pulled in tension (as shown in Figure 3(c)), the grains provide a barrier to dislocation motion. These
resolved shear stress will be a maximum on the slip planes boundaries therefore provide a strengthening effect and, the
that are oriented close to 458 to the tensile axis. Deforma- more grain boundary area there is per unit volume, the
tion will therefore take place by shearing on these planes. greater the strengthening effect. This means that fine-grained
How, on an atomic scale, does this shearing occur? It materials will be stronger than the same coarse-grained
might be imagined that all of the atoms on one slip plane material, because a fine-grained material will have more
slide over all of the atoms on the slip plane below, since grain boundary area to impede dislocation motion. The
this would produce the observed deformation at the crystal relationship between the grain size of an alloy and its yield
surface. However, when a calculation is made of the strength is described by the Hall–Petch equation, which
theoretical critical shear stress required for this process, it states that the yield strength is inversely proportional to the
is found to be several orders of magnitude greater than square root of the grain size (Callister, 2006).
the critical shear stress measured, suggesting another A reduction in grain size can be achieved in practice by
mechanism must be operating. thermomechanical processing of the alloy (e.g. rolling it
In practice, it is much easier to produce slip by introducing to produce sheet, or extruding it to produce rods or bars).
and propagating a dislocation into the crystal structure, It is a widely used strengthening mechanism since it does
rather than sliding one whole atom plane over another. not rely on expensive alloying elements and, in addition, a
Then, rather than having to move all the atoms in the slip grain size reduction also improves the toughness of many
plane at the same time, disrupting the crystal structure alloys (in contrast with the other strengthening mechanisms
across the whole crystal, only a local region of the crystal discussed here, where the increase in strength is usually
structure is disrupted at any one time. An animation illus- accompanied by a decrease in toughness).
trating this process can be found at (DoITPoMS, 2007).
The movement of one dislocation and its destruction at Solid solution strengthening
the surface of the crystal produce a deformation step of Some alloying elements can be dissolved into the crystal
less than 0.5 nm for a typical metal, from which it is clear structure of the matrix phase forming a solid solution.
that movement of many millions of dislocations is needed Alloying elements can be accommodated into the crystal
to provide easily seen macroscopic deformation. Some of of the parent element in one of two ways. If the atomic
these dislocations will already exist in the crystal (since, as radius of the alloying element is much smaller than the
discussed, no real crystal is perfect). Others are generated parent atomic radius, then the alloying element atoms can
during deformation (see Hull and Bacon, 2001 for more sit in the gaps (interstices) between the parent atoms.
details). Such small atoms are commonly referred to as interstitials
The knowledge that deformation in metals occurs on an when in solution. Carbon atoms occupy the interstitial
atomic level by movement of dislocations has important sites when dissolved in iron and this plays a key role in
practical consequences, since it suggests that increasing a the metallurgy of steels.
metal’s resistance to plastic deformation (i.e. increasing More often, soluble alloying elements will not be small
strength) requires inhibition of dislocation movement. enough to be accommodated within gaps between parent
The mechanisms used to do this are discussed next. atoms, in which case the alloying addition will be dissolved
in the parent phase by replacing parent atoms in the crystal
structure. Such elements are referred to as being substitu-
Strengthening of metals and alloys tional when in solution.
In many applications, yield strength is a critical mechanical Both interstitial and substitutional additions will create
property, since this is the maximum stress to which a distortions (strains) in the crystal structure due to the

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 The nature and behaviour of alloys

mismatch in size between the parent and alloying element Strengthening Mechanisms Module). The correct particle
atomic radius. Dislocations also result in a local distortion size is obtained by carefully controlling the alloy composi-
(strain) because the atoms around the dislocation are not in tion and heat treatment.
their ideal positions. The strains due to dislocations will
interact with the strains surrounding solute atoms because
strains of opposite signs will try to cancel each other out. Other mechanical properties
This creates an attraction between the dislocation and The discussion so far has focused on the use of alloying
solute atom that must be broken for the dislocation to elements and processing to increase the yield strength of
move, increasing strength. The effectiveness of solute alloys. While strength is usually a critical design property,
elements in increasing yield strength increases with an there are other mechanical properties that must be consid-
increase in the misfit between the solute and parent atoms ered, and may indeed be of overriding importance in some
and also with the amount of the solute element that can applications.
be dissolved into the matrix crystal structure.
Stiffness
Strain hardening Stiffness (usually characterised by the Young’s modulus) is
Most metals have the useful property that they become the ability of a material to resist elastic deformation. Since
stronger as they are plastically deformed. This effect is most components are designed to operate within the elastic
known as strain or work hardening, and it is often exploited deformation regime (i.e. without plastic deformation) then
in the strengthening of metals and alloys. The origins of the stiffness is usually a key property. However, although
strain hardening effect can be traced to interactions between different metals have widely varying stiffness values (e.g.
the dislocations that are generated during plastic deforma- the Young’s modulus of tungsten is 400 GPa, that of
tion. As discussed, these dislocations locally distort the magnesium is 45 GPa), processing and alloying elements
crystal structure and are thus surrounded by strain fields. added at typical levels do not usually greatly change the
As the number of dislocations increases during deforma- stiffness of the parent metal. Only in alloys that contain
tion, and the dislocations move, their spacing decreases several phases, which have markedly different stiffness
until their strain fields start to interact with each other. values, is it possible to obtain significant variations in
On average, the interaction between the strain fields of stiffness by varying the proportion of the two phases.
neighbouring dislocations leads to repulsive forces between
the dislocations, with the result that an additional applied Fracture toughness
stress is required to overcome this repulsion. This results Fracture toughness characterises the ability of a material to
in an increase in strength. The effectiveness of strain hard- resist the propagation of cracks. Tiny cracks and defects are
ening will depend on the amount of deformation imparted present in all commonly used materials. These cracks will
and also the type of alloy (some alloys show much greater lead to the concentration of stress at the crack tip; the
strain hardening than others). Like grain size refinement, critical stress concentration required to propagate the
strain hardening is a widely used method to strengthen crack characterises the fracture toughness of the material.
low-cost alloys, since it does not depend on the addition Materials with low fracture toughness, such as many
of expensive alloying elements. ceramics, will tend to fail by rapid growth of intrinsic
cracks before reaching the yield stress required for general
Precipitation strengthening plastic deformation. Most alloys have a higher fracture
The most potent strengthening mechanism that is exploited toughness than this, and will yield plastically before
in the highest-strength alloys is precipitation strengthening fracture.
(also known as age hardening). This strengthening Alloying and processing often have a large influence on
mechanism involves forming fine (sub-micron) particles of fracture toughness of metals. The general trend observed
a second crystallographic phase that are embedded in the is that any mechanism that increases the strength of an
matrix crystal. These particles are usually formed by a suit- alloy concomitantly reduces its toughness. This is because
able precipitation heat treatment, as discussed previously. once the yield stress is exceeded at the crack tip, plastic
The precipitate particles increase strength by acting as deformation is able to redistribute the stress and reduce
barriers to dislocation motion. It is found that there is an the stress concentration. The exception to this trend is
optimum size and spacing of particles that gives the best strengthening by grain size refinement, which usually
strengthening effect (the optimum particle size is usually increases both strength and fracture toughness. Fracture
only a few nanometres). If the particles are too small, toughness is also degraded by the presence of a low-tough-
dislocations are able to cut through them, whereas if the ness brittle second phase, which can both act as sites for
particles are large and widely spaced dislocations can pass initial crack formation and as easy pathways for crack
between the particles by bending (AluMATTER, 2007, growth.

ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 473
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Environmental Science - Study Materials
Summer 2023 - Institute

Prepared by: Teaching Assistant Smith

Date: August 12, 2025

Part 1: Historical development and evolution

Learning Objective 1: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 7: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Summary 2: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 26: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 27: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 29: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Discussion 4: Case studies and real-world applications
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 33: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 37: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 39: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 5: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 40: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 41: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 43: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 6: Study tips and learning strategies
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 7: Historical development and evolution
Practice Problem 60: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 62: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 68: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Discussion 8: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 70: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 9: Practical applications and examples
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 81: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 88: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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