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Biotechnology and Agricultural
Development

This book addresses the continuing controversy over the potential impact of
genetically modified (GM) crops in developing countries. Supporters of the tech-
nology claim it offers one of the best hopes for increasing agricultural production
and reducing rural poverty, while opponents see it as an untested intervention that
will bring corporate control of peasant farming. The book examines the issues by
reviewing the experience of GM, insect-resistant cotton, the most widely grown
GM crop in developing countries.
The book begins with an introduction to agricultural biotechnology, a brief
examination of the history of cotton production technology (and the institutions
required to support that technology), and a thorough review of the literature on
the agronomic performance of GM cotton. It then provides a review of the eco-
nomic and institutional outcomes of GM cotton during the first decade of its use.
The core of the book is four country case studies based on original fieldwork in
the principal developing countries growing GM cotton (China, India, South
Africa and Colombia). The book concludes with a summary of the experience to
date and implications for the future of GM crops in developing countries.
This review challenges those who have predicted technological failure by
describing instances in which GM cotton has proven useful and has been enthu-
siastically taken up by smallholders. But it also challenges those who claim that
biotechnology can take the lead in agricultural development by examining the
precarious institutional basis on which these hopes rest in most countries. The
analysis shows how biotechnology’s potential contribution to agricultural devel-
opment must be seen as a part of (and often secondary to) more fundamental
policy change. The book should be of interest to a wide audience concerned with
agricultural development. This would include academics in the social and agri-
cultural sciences, donor agencies and NGOs.

Robert Tripp has a doctorate in social anthropology and has spent his career
working on issues related to agricultural technology development and dissemina-
tion. He spent 15 years with the Economics Program of the International Maize
and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and 12 years as a research fellow
with the Overseas Development Institute (ODF).
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Global Climate Change Policy Environmental Policy
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Biotechnology and
Agricultural Development
Transgenic cotton, rural institutions and
resource-poor farmers

Edited by
Robert Tripp
First published 2009
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.
To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.
© 2009 Robert Tripp
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Biotechnology and agricultural development: transgenic cotton, rural
institutions and resource-poor farmers / edited by Robert Tripp.
p. cm.—(Routledge explorations in environmental economics; 19)
1. Cotton—Biotechnology—Economic aspects—Developing
countries—Case studies. 2. Agricultural biotechnology—Economic
aspects—Developing countries. 3. Agriculture and state—Developing
countries—Case studies. I. Tripp, Robert Burnet. II. Series.
HD9088.D44B56 2009
338.1′763351091724—dc22 2008052124

ISBN 0-203-87646-6 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–49963–1 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0–415–54384–3 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0–203–87646–6 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–49963–7 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–54384–2 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–203–87646–6 (ebk)
Contents

List of illustrations ix
List of contributors xv
Acknowledgements xvii
List of abbreviations xix
Foreword xxi
RAY OFFENHEISER AND KIMBERLY PFEIFER

1 Biotechnology and agricultural development 1

ROBERT TRIPP

2 Cotton production and technology 23

ROBERT TRIPP

3 Development, agronomic performance and sustainability

of transgenic cotton for insect control 49
ANN M. SHOWALTER, SHANNON HEUBERGER,
BRUCE E. TABASHNIK AND YVES CARRIÈRE

4 Transgenic cotton: Assessing economic performance

in the field 72
ROBERT TRIPP

5 Transgenic cotton and institutional performance 88

ROBERT TRIPP

6 Farmers’ seed and pest control management for Bt cotton

in China 105
JIKUN HUANG, RUIJIAN CHEN, JIANWEI MI, RUIFA HU AND
ELLIE OSIR
viii Contents
7 India’s experience with Bt cotton: Case studies from Gujarat
and Maharashtra 135
N. LALITHA, BHARAT RAMASWAMI AND P.K. VISWANATHAN

8 The socio-economic impact of transgenic cotton in Colombia 168

PATRICIA ZAMBRANO, LUZ AMPARO FONSECA, IVÁN CARDONA
AND EDUARDO MAGALHAES

9 Ten years of Bt cotton in South Africa: Putting the smallholder

experience into context 200
MARNUS GOUSE

10 Summary and conclusions 225

ROBERT TRIPP

References 246
Index 268
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Illustrations

Figures
6.1 Principal cotton-growing provinces of China 106
6.2 Cotton varieties sold in county capital and township
shops in 2007 112
6.3 Variation of Bt cotton seed prices (yuan/kg) for nine
major varieties in Hebei, Shandong and Henan in 2007 119
6.4 Chemical pesticides used in China, thousand tons,
1991–2006 125
6.5 Insecticide application in sample villages, Henan,
Shandong and Hebei, 2007 132
6.6 Insecticide application for bollworm in sample villages,
Henan, Shandong and Hebei, 2007 132
7.1 Location of survey areas in India 136
7.2 Seed cotton yields (kg/ha) Gujarat, Maharashtra and
all India 146
8.1 Colombia and cotton-growing regions 169
8.2 Cotton area (ha) and adoption of transgenic cotton
(%), 2004–2008 170
8.3 The activities of cotton producer associations 175
8.4 The commercialization channels for transgenic cotton
seeds, 2007 179
9.1 Cotton production area in South Africa 201
9.2 Main cotton production regions in South Africa 204
9.3 Market share of seed companies according to cotton
delivered to gins per market season 210
9.4 Total October to March rainfall for Makhathini according
to production season 215
9.5 Number of smallholder cotton producers on Makhathini Flats
and the correlation with pre-season rainfall 222
x List of illustrations
Tables
2.1 Cotton insect-resistance transgenes available
commercially, 2007 45
2.2 Area of cotton planted, in hectares, by type (and
per cent of total cotton area), 2007 46
2.3 Area in hectares (and per cent of total cotton area) planted
with transgenic, insect-resistant cotton, (single trait or
stacked), by year 47
3.1 Characteristics of transgenic cotton cultivars for insect
control commercialized or in development 54
3.2 Efficacy of transgenic cotton cultivars against key cotton
pests based on corrected per cent mortality 56
3.3 Efficacy of transgenic cotton cultivars against key cotton
pests based on the corrected per cent reduction of field
pest density 57
4.1 Changes in yield and insecticide use with Bt cotton 74
4.2 Cost of conventional and Bt cotton seed (2007) 79
4.3 Resistance management for Bt cotton 85
5.1 Cotton technology for insect resistance, seed companies
and varieties (2007) 91
5.2 Intellectual property rights and transgenic cotton 94
5.3 Seed regulations in countries growing transgenic cotton 98
6.1 Number of seed companies and seed dealers selling
Bt cotton seeds in 6 county capitals, 8 townships and
12 villages by the level of registration capital in 2007 111
6.2 Number of Bt cotton varieties sold in the shops located in
county capitals in 2007 113
6.3 Number of Bt cotton varieties sold in the shops located in
townships in 2007 113
6.4 Yield performance and insecticide use for Bt cotton varieties
included and not included on China’s Biosafety Committee
approved list in 2006 and 2007 116
6.5 The level of Bt toxin expression, ng/g, by variety type and
by location 117
6.6 Farmers’ knowledge about seed companies 120
6.7 Number of varieties planted per household in Hebei,
Shandong, Henan and Anhui in 2006 120
6.8 The percentage of seed saved and purchased from shops
located in different places in Hebei, Shandong and
Henan, 2006 121
6.9 Insecticide use on cotton varieties from different
seed markets 121
6.10 Adoption of popular Bt cotton varieties,
by village, 2006 122
 List of illustrations xi
6.11 Number of years that farmers have planted cotton varieties
used in 2007 122
6.12 Yields and Bt toxin expression for saved and purchased
seed of the same varieties 123
6.13 Relationship between seed saving and (a) number of shops,
(b) number of varieties in Hebei, Henan and Shandong
in 2006 and 2007 123
6.14 The number of pesticide shops and types of insecticides used
in cotton in Hebei, Shandong and Henan, 2007 126
6.15 Number of insecticide company names recalled by farmers
in Hebei, Shandong and Henan, 2007 126
6.16 The percentage of insecticide purchased from shops located
in different locations in Hebei, Shandong
and Henan, 2007 127
6.17 Types of insecticide applied by farmers in Hebei, Shandong
and Henan, 2007 127
6.18 The most important source of farmers’ information for
selection of type of insecticide 128
6.19 Insecticide use (kg/ha) for all insects and for bollworm
in Hebei, Shandong, Henan and Anhui, 1999–2007 129
6.20 Insecticide use (kg/ha) for all other pests and mirids in
Hebei, Shandong, Henan and Anhui, 1999–2007 130
6.21 Relationship between insecticide application (kg/ha) and
(a) technology knowledge and (b) risk preference 133
7.1 The study sample 137
7.2 Sample farmer characteristics 138
7.3 Bt cotton adoption trends for sample farmers 141
7.4 Adoption trends by number of growers 142
7.5 The diffusion of illegal seeds in Gujarat (sample area) 142
7.6 Adoption of Bt in Maharashtra 143
7.7 Differences between growers who use unapproved seed
and others, Gujarat 143
7.8 Median seed cotton yields for sample farmers 145
7.9 Yields of approved and unapproved varieties in Gujarat,
2005–07 (kg seed cotton per hectare) 146
7.10 Yields of approved and unapproved varieties in Gujarat,
2003–04 (kg seed cotton per hectare) 146
7.11 Number of distinct varieties sown by sample
farmers, 2003–07 148
7.12 Number of varieties grown by sample farmers 149
7.13 Cumulative distribution of novice plantings,
sample farmers 151
7.14 Varietal history and area allocation: Maharashtra 152
7.15 Varietal history and area allocation: Gujarat 152
xii List of illustrations
7.16 Types of planting (novice, experimental and imitation)
for sample farmers, 2007 153
7.17 Sources of information about Bt cotton seeds
(percentage responses) 154
7.18 Labour use for insecticide application and farm size 155
7.19 Number of insecticide sprays applied to fields (Gujarat) 156
7.20 Number of insecticide sprays applied to fields (Maharashtra) 156
7.21 Number of insecticides used in each spraying 157
7.22 Insecticide sprays per plot, by pest and by
time period: Maharashtra 158
7.23 Insecticide applications per plot: Maharashtra 159
7.24 Insecticide use per ha against target pests in Maharashtra 159
7.25 Insecticide sprays per plot, by pest and by time period, Gujarat 160
7.26 Insecticide applications per plot, Gujarat 162
7.27 Insecticide use per ha against target pests in Gujarat 163
7.28 Number of insecticide sprays per plot in Gujarat:
2003–04 versus 2007–08 164
7.29 Farmers’ opinions about Bt cotton 165
7.30 Characteristics of ‘Bollgard II’ growers in Gujarat 165
7.31 Refuge management 166
8.1 Distribution of cotton area by size of holding 171
8.2 Number of farmers and variety use, by department 172
8.3 Cotton associations by area and number of farmers, 2008 174
8.4 Cotton associations in Córdoba by variety use, number
of farmers and area 180
8.5 Characteristics of the survey sample, by department 182
8.6 Landholding and land quality for sample farmers 183
8.7 Characteristics of cotton farmers in the sample – percentages 184
8.8 Household characteristics of sample farmers 185
8.9 Costs of production and yields of sample cotton farmers,
by variety and department 187
8.10 Costs of production and yield, by variety and
farm size, Tolima 190
8.11 Costs of production and yields for 15 Tolima farmers
growing both conventional and Bt varieties 191
8.12 Tolima: first stage – OLS estimation for Bt adoption 192
8.13 Tolima: second-stage – yield estimation 192
8.14 Coast: first stage – OLS estimation for Bt adoption 193
8.15 Coast: second-stage – yield estimation 194
8.16 Seeding rate, by type of variety and farm size, Tolima 195
8.17 Cost of insect control, by type of insect, cotton variety
and department 196
9.1 Cotton production area by province 205
9.2 Percentage and estimated areas (hectares) planted to
transgenic crops in South Africa 206
 List of illustrations xiii
9.3 Cultivars received at cotton gins the past 22 years according
to marketing seasons 208
9.4 Cotton seed prices and technology fees (Rands per 25 kg
bag of seed) 211
9.5 Summary of the findings of the major studies 216
9.6 Smallholder production according to province 218
9.7 Variability in smallholders’ and Makhathini’s contribution
to the total cotton crop 221

Boxes
1.1 Conflicting visions of genetic engineering 2
1.2 Socio-economic impact and the Cartagena Protocol
on Biosafety 17
2.1 The distribution and development of cotton 24
2.2 Cotton and intellectual property 34
2.3 Cotton insects 39
2.4 Plant breeding for insect resistance 43
4.1 Seed price of transgenic cotton in the USA 77
5.1 Transgenic crop varieties and intellectual property rights 92
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807
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