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LIBRARY OF HEBREW BIBLE/
OLD TESTAMENT STUDIES

560
Formerly Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series

Editors
Claudia V. Camp, Texas Christian University
Andrew Mein, Westcott House, Cambridge

Founding Editors
David J. A. Clines, Philip R. Davies and David M. Gunn

Editorial Board
Alan Cooper, John Goldingay, Robert P. Gordon,
Norman K. Gottwald, James Harding, John Jarick, Carol Meyers
Patrick D. Miller, Francesca Stavrakopoulou,
Daniel L. Smith-Christopher
ii
URBAN IMAGINATION
IN BIBLICAL PROPHECY

Mary E. Mills
Published by T & T Clark International
A Continuum imprint
80 Maiden Lane, New York, NY 10038
The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX

www.continuumbooks.com

Visit the T & T Clark blog at www.tandtclarkblog.com

© Mary E. Mills, 2012

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher, T & T Clark
International.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data


A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

eISBN: 978-0-567-59214-9

Typeset by Forthcoming Publications Ltd (www.forthpub.com)


CONTENTS

Acknowledgments vii

Introduction ix

Part 1
DEFINING URBAN PSYCHO-GEOGRAPHY
Chapter 1
URBAN PSYCHO-GEOGRAPHIES 3

Chapter 2
THE PROPHET AS FLANEUR 23

Part 2
SPACE AND PLACE IN PROPHETIC URBAN IMAGINATION
Chapter 3
TEMPLE-SPACE AND URBAN IMAGINARY IN BIBLICAL PROPHECY 49

Chapter 4
A POETICS OF SACRED SPACE IN THE TEMPLE JOURNEYS
OF EZEKIEL 72

Chapter 5
NARRATIVE SPACE AND RITUAL SPACE IN THE BOOK OF JOEL 95

Part 3
THREE URBAN IMAGINARIES
Chapter 6
THE GREAT CITY IN THE BOOK OF JONAH 121

Chapter 7
THE VISIONARY SPACE OF THE SIM-CITY IN ZECHARIAH 1–8 144
vi Contents

Chapter 8
DEATHSCAPES AND THE CITY IN THE MINOR PROPHETS 167

Part 4
ANALYZING URBAN PROPHETIC IMAGINATION
Chapter 9
GEOGRAPHY AND VISION 193

Chapter 10
PROPHETIC CITIES 216

Bibliography 240
Index of References 247
Index of Authors 251
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Much of the material for this book has been worked out via a series of
papers given at SBL meetings both in the US and in Europe so I am very
grateful for the opportunities offered me by Unit Chairs to rene my
ideas through peer response. I am especially grateful to the Editors of the
LHBOTS series for the support I have received from them for the
completion of the project.
I also wish to record my gratitude to Ursula Leahy whose assistance
with proof reading my initial draft has proved invaluable.
viii
INTRODUCTION

The task of this book is to examine the spatial aesthetics of written works
of biblical prophecy; within this framework the particular aim is to
explore and comment on the embedded urban setting of written prophetic
books of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. This enterprise requires the
reader to approach biblical material from the angle of literary studies,
examining the poetics of prophetic literature. It is the symbolic city of
the textual world which is the focus of attention.
In pursuit of this aim I will examine aspects of prophetic literature
from the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament in order to identify urban refer-
ences within this material and will then read and interpret the selected
passages via the lens of modern cultural geography. The use of cultural
geography as a theoretical resource for biblical study draws upon the
commonality of spatial investigations within material sites and within
literary and artistic worlds. The explorations made by social geographers
into the ways in which human beings construct urban discourses provide
a valid access point into spatial disciplines for the textual scholar.
My intention is not to produce a systematic account of the construc-
tion and everyday life of ancient cities but rather to examine the ways in
which prophetic literature works with symbolic city-scapes, using these
as the medium for delivering a social/religious message. I focus on inves-
tigating the literary aesthetics by which ancient texts provide the reader
with imagined urban scenes. Hence the key concept for this book is that
of the “urban imaginary.” This is a term used by the social geographer
Steve Pile, who aligns it with the eld of psycho-geography. Psycho-
geography deals with the construction of the city within the collective
consciousness of its population. Viewed from this angle the city becomes
an embodied subject and develops an emotional layer in which hope and
fear have a major role. An urban imaginary provides an access point into
the world of urban dreams and highlights the varieties of city life which
are constructed by an imaginative response to an urban environment. At
the same time, psycho-geography draws on the gure of the individual
observer of urban affairs who is part of city activity while also standing
somewhat apart—the urban aneur.
x Introduction

In using modern disciplines as an inter-disciplinary resource it is


necessary to acknowledge that the modern metropolis, the post-industrial
city, is different in size and activity range from its ancient counter-part.
What is common to modern and ancient urban concerns, however, is the
way in which cities are constructed via imaginative responses to the
space that the urban environment offers and it is this link which is
employed as the foundation for this book. In the pursuit of urban imagi-
nation it is possible to make some comments on the moral and practical
values which can be attached to urban sites more generally and these
ndings offer a modern readership food for thought in the assessment of
contemporary city life.
With regard to the original cities whose histories underlie prophetic
texts, biblical archaeology has already offered useful insights through
excavation of material sites of urban occupation. There has been consid-
erable work done on the archaeology of towns and villages in ancient
Palestine and Israel, work which presents us with some evidence for the
built environment of northern cities such as Megiddo and Samaria.
Current work is also carried out in Jerusalem, although access to ancient
sites in this city can be difcult. Equally, the preservation of artefacts
from cities in the Mesopotamian region such as Nineveh and Babylon
has provided some access to the activities central to the life of the urban
elites in ancient city-states. This mode of research is not the direct
concern of the present book, which looks to the textual version of city
identity rather than to material remains.
In terms of exploring the symbolic city of the biblical books, some
overall coverage of the subject was provided in the book co-written by
John Rogerson. The rst part of this volume surveyed the presentation of
the city in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, thus providing readers with
an overview of a variety of urban proles. Part 1 led into a pastoral appli-
cation of urban material for our modern world. The present book shares
some of the literary aspects of Rogerson’s work, but diverges from his
approach because of its specic use of social geography as dialogue
partner.
Urban studies map against a wider examination of spatiality as a
measure of meaning and considerable work has been done in this sphere
by Programme Units of the Society of Biblical Literature. The series of
volumes which have emerged from these investigations under the overall
guidance of Jon Berquist and Claudia Camp have already established
foundational perspectives in the subject eld. Thus, Constructions of
Space I explored the methodology of spatiality in an inter-disciplinary
mode, while Constructions of Space II addressed the application of
1
Introduction xi

spatial methodologies to detailed exegesis. A further spatial Programme


Unit, based on consideration of the theoretical work of Edward Soja, has
been formed by Christl Maier and Gert Prinsloo and this seminar is in the
process of contributing a volume to the Constructions of Space Series.
This present book sits within the bounds marked out by such biblical
endeavour, but offers its own unique treatment of spatial aesthetics. It
has as yet no companion in the eld of biblical interpretation in the range
and identity of the key thinkers from the eld of urban geography with
which it works, especially with its specic focus on prophetic books. The
volume engages not only cultural geography but also sociological, philo-
sophical and literary reections on how to evaluate human society.
There is an interface with the historical issues involved in the produc-
tion of prophetic material, but this is not a major topic of the book. While
prophetic books can be situated, with regard to their contents, in a period
of political upheaval in the North West Semitic region, the stress is not
on examination of the historical past for its own sake. The approach
taken is to view the cultural origin of the books as a response to regional
politics. They provide religious treatments of vitally important political
and cultural problems in a period of renewed military activity from the
north and east of the Syro-Palestinian region. Given that starting point,
this book explores the manner in which these texts mediate such a state
of affairs in their literary landscapes. This treatment opens out into a
wider consideration of the symbolic city.
The use of an inter-textual methodology which draws on cultural
geography provides a fresh perspective on biblical material in that it
highlights the urban environment as a site of lived experience and the
function of literature as a medium for processing civic affairs. The pro-
phetic books can be read as expressing political theology and not simply
as theological handbooks concerned with religious belief unconnected
with urban government and regional politics. The existence of a sophisti-
cated body of socio-religious texts provides a resource for an examina-
tion of urban imaginaries which can be set alongside more recent
accounts of how cities function.
This book explores urban imagination through four parallel parts.
Parts 1 and 4 provide an outer frame, establishing boundaries and tools
for the rest of the volume and returning to these foundations for a reec-
tive review. In between, Part 2 addresses issues of spatial measurement
as these engage with urban iconography, highlighting the importance of
the public monument of the urban temple. Part 3 provides three indi-
vidual urban imaginaries, indicating the breadth of approach which this
line of interpretation offers the reader.
1
xii Introduction

In each part attention is given to aspects of spatial theory and to


textual commentary. The combination of reading tools so provided leads
to a literary investigation of the aesthetics of the biblical passage under
review and thus to the poetic imagination which shapes the text
as a response to shifting patterns of cultural need. A balance between
the biblical city as a single entity and as a plurality of possible social
contexts is explored in the nal chapter of the book. The study is not
intended to be a systematic and denitive treatment of prophetic urban
imagination but is proposed as a robust entry point into a currently
emerging sub-discipline of biblical studies. Attention is given to theorists
in the elds of cultural geography, of social science, of philosophy, as
well as those who write on the borderline between documentary genre
and the novel.

1
Part 1

DEFINING URBAN PSYCHO-GEOGRAPHY


2
Chapter 1

URBAN PSYCHO-GEOGRAPHIES

The presentation of urban society found in prophetic texts of the Hebrew


Bible is one which implicitly assumes that the target for the prophetic
message is the leaders of city-states of the ancient Near East. This turns
prophetic texts into works of political theology which deal with an urban
elite society and its national/international relations. The major feature of
this prophetic urban scenario is the palace–temple nexus,1 but references
also occur to streets, houses, gates and populace, as places where human
and divine interests meet and engage.2 It is that textual reality which is
the subject of this book, which will explore the ways in which prophetic
text constructs and evaluates urban contexts. My focus is not on the
details of the historical conditions which led to the production of the
urban images as much as on the manner in which a text presents a picture
of the city and how the way that picture is drawn leads to an overall
evaluation of the nature of urban existence.
In order to carry out this task inter-disciplinary tools will be used,
drawn from aspects of modern cultural geography and urban studies.
These resources come not from the area of town planning or statistical
analysis but from a humanistic approach to geography which deals with
the ways in which inhabitants and their material site interact and which
highlights the role of human imagination in the development of a city
space. In particular, two approaches are central to this book—urban
psycho-geography and the concept of the “aneur,” or “drifter.” The

1. Doreen Massey, “Cities in the World,” in City Worlds (ed. Doreen Massey,
John Allen and Steve Pile; New York: Routledge, 1999). Massey (117) notes how
religious centres such as Jerusalem have been a focus for powerful geographies.
2. Robert Park, “The City: Suggestions for Investigation of Human Behaviour
in the Urban Environment,” in The City: Suggestions for Investigation of Human
Behaviour in the Urban Environment (ed. Robert Park, Ernest Burgess and Roderick
McKenzie; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 4. Park argues that the city
plan establishes the bounds and xed character of a city foundation and imposes an
orderly arrangement within the city area.
4 Urban Imagination in Biblical Prophecy

function of this chapter is twofold—to provide an insight into psycho-


geography and to use some examples of this methodology as reading
partner for interpretation of biblical text. In particular it is Steve Pile’s
book Real Cities which will provide the reading lens.3 Pile develops the
term “urban imaginary” to delineate the meeting of human imagination
and material site and speculates about a number of imaginaries which
can be found in city life.
By carrying out this exploration I will elucidate the concept of “urban
imaginary” as used by Pile and set the scene for later chapters which
will examine particular examples of urban imagination in greater detail.
Through the use of interdisciplinary methods it is possible both to con-
nect the urban imagery of the ancient texts with a contemporary perspec-
tive on city existence and to explore the aesthetics of textual iconography
with regard to prophets and their cities. Although there is a great dif-
ference between ancient and modern cities in terms of size, design and
occupation, there are also points in common. The focus on urban imagi-
nation is especially helpful in inter-textual work with modern theorists.
The prophetic texts are poetic works which employ the human imagina-
tion both to develop their internal themes and to attract the attention of
the reader. This mode of operation occurs also in modern studies which
address the ways in which people “feel” about cities.
Scholars such as Gordon Childe have already attempted to set out the
concept of the city as construed in the ancient past. Childe notes the
symbiosis in the ancient world between deity and city; typically, texts
reveal that the king constructs the city in line with dreams sent from the
divine sphere which dene the temple plans.4 On the ground the reality is
that temples functioned as core institutions for the economic system.
“The economic system that made the god a great capitalist and landlord,
his temple into a city bank, goes back to prehistoric times.”5 The city,
then, is both a religious and a secular reality, with two dimensions, that of
social metaphor for community and that of material streets and buildings.

3. Steve Pile, Real Cities, Modernity, Space and the Phantasmagorias of City
Life (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2005). In this work Pile develops his earlier approaches
of applying language regarding the human body and psyche to city life, stressing the
role of imagination in constructing and interpreting urban affairs.
4. Gordon Childe, “The Urban Revolution,” in The City Reader (ed. Richard
Gates and Frederick Stout; New York: Routledge), 24. Both Childe and Edward
Soja, Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions (Oxford: Blackwell,
2000), note that urbanization has been a continuous form of human habitation from
the times of the ancient Near East. See, for instance, Soja, Postmetropolis, 27–29,
for a review of ancient Jericho.
1
5. Ibid., 27.
1. Urban Psycho-geographies 5

As Burton Pike notes, the visible city lives its life, thus producing
subconscious currents in the minds of the city’s living inhabitants, from
the combination of past and present urban dwelling.6 The meeting of
secular and religious perspectives drawn from past and present life leads
to competing evaluations of city life—the myth of the city as corruption
and the myth of the city as perfection.7 In prophetic texts the twofold
view of the city as corrupt and as perfect can be clearly seen in Ezekiel’s
critique of Jerusalem, with its corruption leading to its destruction in chs.
8–11, and its purication by divine re, an event which allows for a new
city life which is cleansed of corruption to emerge in chs. 40–48.

Developing the Urban Imaginary


My approach focuses on these “mythic” perceptions of urban life and can
be aligned with the way in which Robert Park argues that the city is a
“state of mind” not merely a “physical mechanism.”8 It has about it the
aura of magic and fantasy insofar as it is eshed out by the iconography
of cultural traditions in a given place, with religious tradition as part of
the resource-set for such “supernatural” imaging.9 It is this wider eld of
urban imagination which political institutions must relate to if they are
to gain credence among city-dwellers since political activity seeks to
harness both social and economic structures and cultural imagination in
support of claims to power.10 This view is supported by Park’s argument
that “the political machine is an attempt to maintain, inside the formal
administrative organisation of a city, the control of a primary group.”11
Thus there is a pragmatic aspect to urban imagination, allowing it to
inform situated, political activity. Urban imaginaries are inherently
political in their eld of reference to human affairs.
In the case of biblical images of the city it is, of course, written
material which this book will use as the evidence for urban imagination.
To give an example, one narrative construction of an urban political

6. Burton Pike, “The City as Image,” in Gates and Stout, eds., City Reader, 243.
The production of subconscious currents comes from the link with the city’s dead,
through religious rituals.
7. Ibid., 244.
8. Park, “The City,” 1.
9. Ibid., 129.
10. Cf. James Donald, Imagining the Modern City (London: Athlone, 1999),
18–19, where Donald notes the importance of the Imaginary, stating that this is not
delusion nor idiosyncratic imaging but reects a social imagination which creates
from everyday life the symbolic reality of the group, in language.
1
11. Park, “The City,” 35.
6 Urban Imagination in Biblical Prophecy

imaginary may be seen in the book of Jeremiah, where the temple


becomes a place of contention for two competing approaches to inter-
national politics in the region, with groups pressing for war against the
imperial landlord and, conversely, other groups demanding acceptance of
foreign rule.12 Jeremiah 7, for example, represents one side in this con-
tention, on the side of cautioning against rebellion, since the prophetic
voice puts forward the view that merely having a temple building in a
city does not ensure its success in war. The prophetic voice expresses a
political theology in which the temple site is a key feature, dened both
by its underlying historical reality and by its function as a symbol for a
civil society in its last stages of collapse.
In this particular urban iconography the life of historical cities in
Judah in the Assyrio-Babylonian period is evaluated by a passage which
sets up a symbolic Jerusalem and then uses the literary setting to critique
the political stance of the populace and city elite who visit the temple as
part of their civic duty.13 The historical space and time of a temple-based
culture is aligned with the symbolic temple-city found in prophetic texts
in such a way that what opens up is the potential for using spatiality as a
helpful interpretive tool for biblical reading. One key resource among
biblical scholars interested in spatiality is Edward Soja, who develops the
view that urban affairs are inuenced by the imaginations of those who
inhabit city spaces.14 His theory of Thirdspace, drawn from the work of
Henri Lefebvre, aims to construct a trialectics, where the concept of a
third breaks apart binary thought.15 Here the physical, mental and social
dimensions of human spatiality relate to each other to produce a concept
of human spatiality as simultaneously real and imagined, concrete and
abstract, material and metaphysical.16

12. Cf. Robert Carroll, Jeremiah (London: SCM, 1986), 70–71.


13. This reality can be aligned with Childe’s commentary on ancient cities, that
civic and religious functions were closely intertwined. See also, John Short, Urban
Theory: A Critical Assessment (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
14. Soja’s work is used, for example, as a point of reference by Christl Maier and
Gert Prinsloo in setting up a Space and Place programme unit for the International
Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature.
15. The use of Soja’s thought here does not preclude a serious critique of his
views, such as is implied in Claudia Camp, “Introduction,” in Constructions of
Space II: The Biblical City and Other Imagined Spaces (ed. J. Berquist and C.
Camp; New York: T&T Clark International, 2008).
16. Edward Soja, Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and-
Imagined Places (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 61–65.
1
1. Urban Psycho-geographies 7

For Soja the metaphorical nature of urbanism and the role of the city
as symbol constantly function to expand the horizons of what a city may
be and can become. This approach is rooted in exploring the social func-
tion of language. Soja argues that “all language is a set of symbols whose
use among its speakers assumes a shared past”; this is the foundation for
focusing on the symbolic nature of language. In this context he moves
from everyday speech to the language of vision, which he stresses as
highly symbolic. “Mystics fall back on symbols… Ezekiel on the god-
head…the four-faced angel who at one and the same time moves east/
west and north/south.”17 Reading the book of Ezekiel from Soja’s view-
point allows the reader to emphasize the symbolic and imaginary work of
prophetic text and hence to examine how prophetic language functions
to expand the urban symbolism of the city of Jerusalem, rst in the direc-
tion of an unimagined catastrophe via the space of temple and city
streets, then moving into the unexplored territory of the renewal and
rebuilding of both city and community in a new era.
The concept of urban renewal and a new life for the house of Israel is
mooted in Ezek 36, where v. 24 contains the promise that the deity will
gather the scattered people from their exile and bring them back to their
own land. Verse 27 conrms this in the language of covenant: “You will
be my people and I will be your God.” Verse 33 promises as part of this
renewal of alliance between God and people that towns will be repopu-
lated and ruins will be rebuilt. Verse 38 turns this into an image of
supreme reconstruction of the urban community. The people will ll the
cities with ocks of people. So far all this is a future on the lips of the
deity without any sign to show that it will in fact happen. How are we the
readers to put our trust in the promise at a time of desolation and social
fragmentation?
Chapter 37 responds to that need for a sign by exploring symbolically
the resurrection of the people from their graves.18 At the start of the
sequence the bones are not only scattered but are very dry, the epitome of
sterility.19 To change this situation requires the prophet to mediate the in-
breathing of life to the members of a community which is culturally and
politically dead. As a result of this activity the dead return to life, clothed
in esh, breathing life. The dramatizing of the return from death to life is
the mode of symbolic transference of hope for the future into the dead
community. Finally, in vv. 15–28, the bodies of individual citizens are

17. Ibid., 55.


18. Cf. Moshe Greenberg, Ezekiel 21–37 (New York: Doubleday, 1997), 747–48.
1
19. Ibid., 742.
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