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 The Challenges of
Educational Leadership
Leading Teachers, Leading Schools
Series Editor: Alma Harris, Professor of Educational Leadership at the
University of Warwick

This series of cutting-edge books on current issues in teaching and school

improvement aims to deal with the practical realities of leading and
improving schools and classrooms, but through the conceptual and
theoretical lenses of teacher development, leadership practice and learning
approaches. Each title therefore shows what its subject means for school and
classroom improvement.

This series is for teachers, headteachers and all those involved in school and
classroom improvement. It is also intended to support Professional
Development Opportunities, NCSL courses and MEd/EdD work.

Titles include:
Democratic Leadership in Education
Peter Woods (2004)
Creating the Emotionally Intelligent School
Belinda M. Harris (2004)
The Challenges of Educational Leadership
Mike Bottery (2004)
Teacher Inquiry for School Improvement
Judy Durrant and Gary Holden (forthcoming in 2005)
Leadership for Mortals
Dean Fink (forthcoming in 2005)
 The Challenges of
Educational Leadership
Values in a Globalized Age

Mike Bottery
 2004 Mike Bottery

First published 2004

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or

private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication
may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by
any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the
publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in
accordance with the terms of licences issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning
reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the
publishers.

Paul Chapman Publishing

A SAGE Publications Company
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP

SAGE Publications Inc

2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320

SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd

B-42, Panchsheel Enclave
Post Box 4109
New Delhi 110 017

Library of Congress Control Number: available

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British

Library

ISBN 1 4129 0080 8

ISBN 1 4129 0081 6 (pbk)

Typeset by TW Typesetting, Plymouth, Devon

Printed in Great Britain by Athenaeum Press Ltd, Gateshead
 Contents

List of Tables vi
Acknowledgements vii
Epigraph viii
Foreword ix

1 The book’s intentions 1

2 Shifting frames of reference: the need for ecological
leadership 12

PART 1 SETTING THE CONTEXT

3 The global challenge 29
4 The impact of commodification and fragmentation 55
5 The impact of standardization and control 77

PART 2 EXAMINING THE IMPACT

6 The impact on trust 101
7 The impact on truth and meaning 123
8 The impact on identity 143

PART 3 BEGINNING A RESPONSE

9 Learning communities in a world of control and
fragmentation 165
10 Professionals at the crossroads 185
11 Models of educational leadership 198

Bibliography 215
Index 225
 Tables

Table 1.1 Eight Essential Educational Objectives and their

dependency on one another. 8
Table 6.1 What happens when governments don’t trust
professionals? 103
Table 6.2 The possible trust relationships between different
levels. 116
Table 6.3 Re-establishing governmental–professional trust. 119
Table 7.1 The Meeting of Minds? Four approaches to
epistemology and their likely opinions of each
other. 128
Table 9.1 Possible Varieties of ‘Learning Communities’ 181
Table 10.1 Changing views of Public sector educators. 190
Table 10.2 Two different styles of audit. 193
 Acknowledgements

I have been fortunate to have many friends and colleagues who have
helped during the writing of this book. In particular, I would like to
single out Chris Sink, Nigel Wright, Derek Webster, Julian Stern and
Derek Colquhoun.
I would also like to thank Cambridge Journal of Education, Educa-
tional Management and Administration, School Leadership and Manage-
ment, and the International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, for
permission to use materials previously published in those journals.
Finally, and as always, my love and thanks to Jill, Christopher and
Sarah, for all their support, and for being who they are.
And if the blind lead the blind, both shall fall
into the ditch.

Matthew, verse 14.

 Foreword

Leadership is back in fashion. Across many western countries there

has been a renewed emphasis upon improving leadership capacity
and capability in the drive towards higher educational performance
and standards. Governments around the world are involved in the
business of educational reform and are placing a great deal of
emphasis on improving the quality of leadership. Even though there
are few certainties about the ability of educational policy to secure
higher performance from the educational system, the arguments for
investment in education, and particularly educational leadership,
remain powerful and compelling.
While the education challenges are considerable and the route to
reform is complex, the potential of leadership to influence pupil and
school performance remains unequivocal. It has been consistently
argued that the quality of headship matters in determining the
motivation of teachers and the quality of teaching which takes place in
the classroom (Hargreaves, 2003; Crowther, 2000; Day et al., 2000;
Fullan, 2001). The importance of leadership in securing sustainable,
school improvement has been demonstrated in both research and
practice (Harris, 2002; Hopkins, 2001). Consequently, from a policy
maker’s perspective, school leaders are viewed as holding the key to
resolving a number of the problems currently facing schools. This has
led to a major investment in the preparation and development of school
leaders across many countries and has proved a main impetus for the
establishment of the 1National College for School Leadership in England.
Clearly, there is some basis for optimism. The research evidence
shows that effective leaders exert a powerful influence on the
effectiveness of the school and the achievement of students (Wallace,
2002; Waters et al., 2004). But there is also need for caution. Although
the international research base on leadership is vast, the evidential
base is very diverse and the nature of studies varies considerably.
Yet, there are relatively few studies that have established any direct

1
The National College for School Leadership is located at Nottingham University.
x The challenges of educational leadership

causal links between leadership and improved student performance

(Hallinger and Heck, 1996).
This new series focuses predominantly upon the relationship
between leadership and learning. It also provides new and alternative
perspectives on leadership which offer a direct challenge to the
current orthodoxies of school leadership that persist, prevail and still
dominate contemporary thinking. This book by Mike Bottery really
does trail blaze the message that there are different ways of
conceptualizing what leadership is, and should be, within a global
society. In an informed but incisive way this book begins to dissect
and dismantle some of the prevailing views about leadership, arguing
that educational leaders need to engage with the wider, global
influences that affect schools and schooling. The ‘socio-cultural
context’, says Bottery, needs to embrace far more than the school, the
district or even the educational system.
This book considers the supra-educational pressures on schools and
locates them at a global, cultural and national level. It critiques
educational leadership arguing that it is simultaneously and paradoxi-
cally about control and fragmentation. The dualism of centre versus
periphery is explored in some depth along with the important but
often sidelined issues of trust, meaning and identity within the
current educational context and climate. Bottery rightfully relocates
these at the heart of educational change, development and reform.
The book argues that the main challenge for educational leaders is to
respond in a meaningful and authentic way to these issues and in so
doing develop new meanings and understandings about their role. It
also argues for an alternative model of educational leader who is not
only an ethical dialectician who works from a value base with
educational vision but who also has considerable political and
pragmatic awareness. Such leaders have an internal moral compass
which drives their relationships with others and ensures they rarely
stray from an agenda focused on learners and learning.
As the first book in a new series, Mike Bottery has provided a rare
balance of challenge, critique and pragmatism. It is unlikely that this
book will be read and forgotten. In the contemporary climate of
designer leadership, lowest common denominator competences and
de-contextualized leadership approaches, Mike Bottery has reminded
us of the global horizon and the professional, moral and ethical
responsibilities of those who lead within our schools. For this alone,
The Challenges of Educational Leadership: Values in A Globalized Age
should be welcomed.

Alma Harris (Series Editor)

Mike Bottery is Professor of Education and Director of Research
Degrees in the Centre for Educational Studies at the University of
Hull. He has been Visiting Professor at the Universities of Sas-
katchewan and Seattle Pacific, and Noted Scholar at the University of
British Columbia. Chair of the Standing Conference for Research into
Education, Leadership and Management 2004–5, this is his seventh
book.
.
1 The book’s intentions

Educational leadership is taken extremely seriously across the globe.

There are now a considerable number of initiatives for its develop-
ment in places as diverse as Canada, the UK, Sweden, the USA,
Singapore, Hong Kong and Australasia (see Bush and Jackson, 2002;
Brundrett, 2002). While all reflect local culture and needs, and vary
in the balance of responsibility for such development between
government, local authorities and academics, there remains similarity
in the reasons for current interest, and in the content which
educational leaders are believed to need to cover. Some of these
programmes aim not only at training principals, but also in gaining
overviews of the research in the area, and on the back of such
understanding, to generate new insights. The reason for all this
activity is easy to understand: in a period of massive change, there is
perceived to be an urgent need for all professional educators to
understand such change in order to better prepare their students for
a diversity of potential futures. The UK National College for School
Leadership (NCSL) is a good example of this kind of approach. In its
Annual Review of Research 2002–3, it suggested (NCSL, 2003: 7) that
five major issues had emerged during the previous year requiring
discussion. These were: definitions of leadership; the importance of
context; leaders’ professional development; capacity building; and the
need for a futures orientation.
Historically, there has been much debate about precise meanings
of ‘leadership’. It is a highly contested concept. The NCSL (2003: 7)
commented that by one estimate there exist 350 definitions of the
term: they also remark that they were surprised that there were so
few. Indeed, and as Hodgkinson (in Ribbins, 1993: 23) has remarked,
there is much ‘word magic’ surrounding the term which bewitches
rather than clarifies. Like the NCSL, then, this book does not want to
get into heavy debates about such meanings. However, there are at
least two occasions when it cannot and should not be avoided. The
first occasion is when meanings have direct implications for chal-
lenges being considered. For example, and as developed in the next

1
2 The challenges of educational leadership

chapter, particular versions of leadership place such weight of

expectation upon individuals, that they exacerbate the situation of
many who already feel over-worked and over-stressed. When this
happens, when certain duties and responsibilities are attached to
particular meanings, then leadership definitions do not simply de-
scribe but actually contribute to existing challenges and problems for
educational leaders, and scrutiny becomes essential. The second
occasion is the need to contrast the officially prescribed leadership
qualities and activities to which leaders are currently being steered,
with those which research and analyses suggest are needed. Here, it
is important to be able to ‘name’ and delineate contrasting types to
help us have a clearer idea of where we are and where we want to
go. This book will address both of these occasions.
However, for most of it, educational ‘leaders’ are taken to be those
both in formally appointed role positions and also in informal
positions who exercise influence and provide direction to their
colleagues. This book, then, is not written to contribute to a literature
on ‘leadership’ meanings. Rather it is written to help individuals,
alone and in groups, and at different levels of educational establish-
ments, to help themselves and their colleagues deal better with the
forces which surround them, forces which affect the realization of
their visions of educational purposes.
So this book also agrees with Leithwood et al. (1999: 4) in Canada,
who argue that ‘outstanding leadership is exquisitely sensitive to
context’. The NCSL in the UK also takes this position when it argues
that leadership needs to be seen as a contextualized activity ‘because
one of the most robust findings is that where you are affects what you
do as a leader’ (2003: 7), and that such ‘context’ should encompass more
than the type of school, its circumstances or its geographical location.
Instead, it needs to encompass personal circumstance, issues of the
local community, and looking even further afield, there needs to be the
recognition that ‘local, national and international events interplay with
social, economic and political factors in ways which impact on the
equilibrium of the school as a social organisation’. In such an expanded
context, then, ‘successful school leadership . . . involves being sensitive
to these forces and the ways in which they combine, react and
influence the school’ (2003: 9). The reasons for this are compelling –
‘we need to prepare the children in school today for a future where
uncertainty and change are a feature of their lives’ (2003: 8).
This is indeed a critical time for education, and for societies in
general. It is an age of rapid and far-reaching changes, which no
longer occur just at the local and national levels, but which have
profound effects across the globe. It is a time when we recognize that
 The book’s intentions 3

global warming is no respecter of national borders as it melts polar

ice-caps, changes growing seasons and radically affects species’
viability. It is a time when we recognize that humanity continues to
contribute to global pollution, and yet still seems stuck within
postures, both political and economic, which prevent this issue from
being properly addressed. It is also a time of great paradox, when
massive standardizations of global culture contrast with the easy
availability of varied cultures and beliefs. It is a time when some
people embrace variety and the freedom while others retreat behind
fundamentalist walls as they feel their beliefs are undermined.
Perhaps, most importantly, with the demise of fascism and commu-
nism as state-sponsored ideologies, it is a time when a version of
liberal democracy is the only global political ideology, and walks
arm-in-arm across a world stage with an economics of free-market
capitalism. The results of this twin domination have been remarkable
and striking in their extent and intensity, and while many have
welcomed this development, there are others who are much less
sanguine. This book, then, suggests that the leader’s ‘context’ needs
to be seen as global in nature and, aims to untangle some of these
issues and their effects, particularly with respect to the challenges
they pose for educational leaders.
These massive changes then pose fundamental questions for
society, and in so doing, impose new contexts on the work of
educational leaders. They also raise uncomfortable questions for
conventional professional assumptions and habits, for this book
argues that because of them professionals should be entering domains
not previously considered as central to their interests. Yet, for so
many, the immediate issue is one of time: as the NCSL (2003: 14)
points out ‘for school leaders and teachers alike, today always seems
more urgent than tomorrow. The daily press of the work of teachers
and heads exerts its own influence on them’ and in such a press, the
larger issues may simply be pushed to one side. So this book may be
uncomfortable reading for some, and distanced from more immediate
concerns for others. But it argues that these challenges are so
fundamental, so important, that educational leaders, and society as
well, ignore them at their peril. It also argues that while the
challenges described impact upon those within the private sector,
they impact even more strongly upon those working within the public
sector. Furthermore, and, perhaps unfashionably at the present time,
it argues that a public sector with a wide-reaching welfare state is a
valuable element of any developed society, that it is worth having and
fighting for, and that most of its functions are not improved by being
taken over and run by private sector institutions. This argument is not
4 The challenges of educational leadership

intended as, nor do I believe it depends upon, a feeling of nostalgia

for some earlier ‘golden period’: it argues instead that any future
healthy, caring and culturally rich society requires a public sector to
provide a set of goods or services which are too important to be left
to other sectors – especially if these other sectors have differing
values which might result in uneven provision.
Now such public sector ‘goods’ have varied from country to
country, but have usually consisted of educational, health and social
welfare provision. Such public sector goods are also linked to the
more extensive project of a welfare state, which is based in part upon
the belief that providing citizens with more equal access to such
goods will generate a more democratic exercise of political power, as
greater degrees of health, economic security and educational provi-
sion enable individuals to access these rights more easily. Welfare
states, rather than emphasizing the kinds of competitive relationships
which underpin market functioning, value and nurture trusting,
co-operative and caring relationships. Through the stimulation of
such relationships, a public sector can then become the repository for
the kinds of social values which the private sector itself needs to draw
upon if it is to function properly. By undermining the public sector,
then, the private sector is likely to undermine the societal foundations
which it needs if it is to flourish.

The book’s argument

While such effects are not normally seen as the kinds of challenges
which educational leaders need to consider, this book will argue that
they relate directly to the kinds of work that leaders do, and that they
tend to steer educational leaders away from particular kinds of
education and into other, less desirable areas. Of course, statements
about ‘more desirable’ and ‘less desirable’ kinds of education need to
spelt out a little more, and without going into a treatise of educational
philosophy, it is important to make clear the kind of arguments which
will be used in this book. The principal argument can be stated in just
four sentences:

1 A rich and flourishing society depends, in part, upon the provision

for its citizens of a rich and diverse education.

2 A rich and diverse education will only be achieved through the

adoption and practice of a number of different educational
objectives.
 The book’s intentions 5

3 All of these objectives are interconnected, in most cases being

dependent upon one other.
4 At the present time, one of these objectives dominates and
thereby prevents the achievement of the others.

Now while different people will have different ideas of what ‘a rich
and flourishing society’ might consist of, this book argues that,
minimally, it needs the following qualities:

A political underpinning by a version of democracy which

encourages its citizens to actively participate in decision making.
To promote the idea that members should respect and care for
one another, and should contribute to efforts to reduce other
people’s difficulties in participating in and contributing to that
society.
A commitment to helping all members to appreciate the artistic,
scientific and cultural discoveries of their society, and those of
others.
A commitment to helping all members realize their full potential,
to engage in a process of spiritual growth, and to fulfil themselves
as human beings in the widest sense.
To be sufficiently secure that those within it do not live in fear of
either external or internal threat.
To be sufficiently outward-looking to learn from and help other
societies.
To be sufficiently outward-looking to recognize the interconnec-
tedness of all forms of life on this world, and work towards
helping such interconnectedness.
To be sufficiently economically prosperous to permit the achieve-
ment of these other aims.

Clearly, different people will have different views on this subject, and
may well want to add or extract from this list. Nevertheless, if the
notion of needing a rich and flourishing society is accepted, then
precise lists can be left to educational philosophers and healthy
democratic debate. What does seem unarguable is that such aims are
unlikely to be achieved by chance, and that any society serious about
them will have to create systems and institutions to achieve them.
Now, given the kinds of aims described above, education is going to
6 The challenges of educational leadership

have a pivotal role here, and it will need to be as rich and diverse as
the society it is attempting to nurture; and like the society itself, such
an education system will require a variety of objectives. Without
again wishing to write a treatise in this area, such an education would
seem to require at least the following eight objectives:

1 An economic productivity objective: the need to foster and develop

students’ skills, knowledge and attitudes so that they are able to
earn a living, and contribute to the overall economic wealth of a
country.
2 A democratic objective: the need to provide students with the skills,
knowledge and the self-belief to contribute to the development of
a democratic state, and for educational professionals to set an
example by their participation in the running of their organiz-
ations.
3 A welfare state objective: the communication of the belief that a
society needs to be more than a sum of individuals but should
aspire to be a social and political community which cares for and
helps its members, and redresses inequities so that all can
participate in this society.
4 An interpersonal skills objective: the need to facilitate in students
the social skills which allow people to live together in a harmoni-
ous and fulfilling manner.
5 A social values objective: the need to promote to students social
values such as equity, care, harmony, environmental concerns,
and democracy within this society.
6 An epistemological objective: the need to communicate to students
a deep understanding of the nature of knowledge, normally
through the study of a particular subject discipline, which not
only provides an understanding of this world, and generates a
sense of awe and wonder, but also through understanding human
epistemological limitations, a constant humility.
7 A personal development objective: the need to allow each student to
realize their full potential, to engage in a process of spiritual
growth, and to fulfil themselves as human beings in the widest
sense.
8 An environmental objective: the need for students to understand the
interdependency of all living things, and of the human impact
upon other beings, resources and living conditions on this planet.
 The book’s intentions 7

It may be tempting to view these as discrete, separate and unconnec-

ted. Yet, and as Table 1.1 demonstrates, these can be seen as for
example, three complex, connected and interdependent objectives. A
first example would be a rich and varied personal development is
essential to the growth of a rich and vibrant democracy. At the same
time, the development of the democratic norms of participation,
respect and inclusion are also essential for the facilitation of rich
individual personal development. A second example would be the
provision of an education in which interpersonal skills are valued and
practised forms a major foundation for the functioning of a sound
welfare state; at the same time an education in the values of the
welfare state itself – with its emphasis on notions of community,
equity and caring for others – provides a vital political and institu-
tional context within which interpersonal skills can be nurtured and
practised. A final example is where the provision of an education in
social values, in particular an education in respect for truth, respect
for other opinions, and personal integrity, facilitates the deeper
personal understanding of epistemological issues; at the same time
social values themselves are necessarily conditioned by and in part
dependent upon a full appreciation of an external reality, and this in
itself is conditioned by a full understanding of epistemological issues.
In like manner the provision of an economically productive
education – either by making some of its content relevant to the needs
of a nation-state embedded within a global economy, or by providing
future workers with the skills, knowledge, values and attitudes to
enable them to be employable within such an economic scenario – is
essential if interpersonal skills, social values and fully rounded
personal development are to be practised with a reasonable degree of
economic security; yet economic activity can only be properly
executed where people have a foundation of social values like trust,
respect and care, where they have the interpersonal skills to engage
in the kind of teamwork essential in a knowledge economy, and have
the kind of well-rounded personality capable of adapting to new
changing situations. The development of democracy and a welfare
state are dependent on a productive economy, because it provides a
secure enough wealth base to support such practices; however, the
development of a healthy economy is also dependent on them, for
both democracies and welfare states are more likely to permit fuller
utilization of all talents, the first through its underlying principle of
the participation of all, the second by its underlying principle of
providing sufficient services for all to engage in such participation.
This book argues that at the present time, the dominant objective
in many societies, and in many education systems is that of economic
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