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The Elements of Inquiry

The Elements of Inquiry covers the basic guidelines for graduate

students doing an investigation or inquiry project. It distils the rubrics
necessary for teaching research methods and completing research
projects, and gives the student researcher a list of steps to follow to
complete any type of inquiry project – including formal research
projects such as doctoral dissertations. It was written to support the
work of students in an educational leadership doctoral program,
but it will also assist the research efforts of college students at any
level in any discipline.
The book begins by establishing the underlying philosophical
concepts upon which all good research is based, preparing
students to get down to the “nuts and bolts” of conducting their
own research and evaluating the research of others. Fundamental
concepts and rules of research are explained both for producers
and consumers of social science and educational research.
Numerous practical examples illustrate the steps in the research
process presented in the text. There are end-of-chapter exercises for
students to apply the concepts discussed in the chapter. Templates
for organizing and presenting research provide students with a
game plan for success with their research. The book ends with
an up-to-date annotated bibliography of beginning and advanced
research texts allowing students easy access to books that detail
the more specialized research topics.
While most research books detail one or more method in depth,
this text provides a broad introduction to many techniques and
models used in doctoral dissertations, and will be of particular value
to those who are consumers of inquiry studies and research reports.
Key to the overview provided is the annotated bibliography that
leads the reader to the next stage of understanding or doing research.

Peter J. Burke is Director of a graduate program in educational

leadership and a faculty member in the Education Department
at Edgewood College in Madison, Wisconsin, USA. He is author,
co-author, or co-editor of four books, five monographs, several
book chapters, and numerous articles in professional journals on
topics such as leadership, school improvement, teacher growth
and development, and the supervision of instruction.

Sara Jimenez Soffa is Director of Research and Associate Professor

of education for the doctoral program in educational leadership
at Edgewood College in Madison, Wisconsin, USA. She was
previously Coordinator for the Higher Education and Agency
(IHE) educational leadership concentration for the doctoral
program in educational leadership (Ed.D.) at Edgewood College.
The Elements of Inquiry
Research and Methods for a
Quality Dissertation

SECOND EDITION

Peter J. Burke and

Sara Jimenez Soffa
Second edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Peter J. Burke and Sara Jimenez Soffa to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be
trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pyrczak 2009
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-0-8153-6290-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-8153-6288-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-11107-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9780815362883

This book is dedicated to Dr. Peter J. Burke,
for his conviction that Edgewood College could
compassionately shape a community of learners
and educators from the very beginning. Thank you,
Dr. Burke, for envisioning a superintendent licensure
program that has flourished into our program that
prepares educational leaders across Wisconsin and
beyond to lead with truth, compassion, partnership,
community, and justice. Your leadership and vision
is evident in the graduates of our program who make
meaningful differences in the lives of those whom
they serve.

Sara Jimenez Soffa

Edgewood College
Madison, Wisconsin
Contents

Introduction xii
Acknowledgments xv
Preface xvi

PART I
An Introduction 1

1 Research as Inquiry 3
Consuming Research 4
Research Fundamentals 6
The Scientific Approach to Inquiry 8
Challenges with Using the Scientific Method
of Inquiry 12
Summary 13

2 Sources of Data 15
Quantitative Data 15
Qualitative Data 23
Summary 26

3 Common Uses of Research 29

Historical, Social, Cultural, and Linguistic
Contexts 29
Action Research 30
Thesis and Dissertation Research 31
Research for Program Evaluation and
Improvement 34
Summary 35

4 The Value of Research 37

Research Theories and Philosophies 38
Empirical Research 41
Summary 44
viii Contents
5 The Structure of Research 48
Empirical Research 48
Selecting Research Literature 52
Putting Research to Work 56

6 The Research Report 58

Elements of a Research Report 58
Research Significance 70

PART II
The Steps in the Process 73

7 The Theoretical Basis of Research 75

Step 1 READ: Review and Summarize the
Literature Pertinent to the Topic 75
The Literature Search 75
Writing the Literature Review 77
Summary 84

8 The Purpose of the Study 87

Step 2 THINK: Analyze Existing Research and
Specify the Research Topic 87
Research Concepts 89
Research Constructs 89
Theoretical/Conceptual Frameworking 93
Basic Questions 96
Summary 97

9 The Design of the Study 100

Step 3 DESIGN: Select a Research Methodology 100
Experimental Design 101
Quasi-experimental Design 106
Non-experimental Design 107
Mixed Methods 109
Action Research 110
Considerations 111

10 Know the Evidence 115

Step 4 ASSESS: Identify the Data Sources 115
Population and Sample 115
Sampling Strategies 116
Stratification 118
Research Decisions 119
Significance 120
 Contents ix
Qualitative Data Sources 120
Summary 122

11 Know the Evidence Source 125

Step 5 SELECT: Identify the Data Subjects
or Research Participants 125
Research Categories 126
Field Research 126
Evidence Sources 127
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) 129
Implications 131

12 Gather the Evidence 133

Step 6 COLLECT: Pull the Research Data
Together 133
Variables 133
Data-collection Strategies 134
Validity 140
Reliability 141
Trustworthiness 143
Selection in Action 143

13 Review the Evidence 147

Step 7 ANALYZE: Examine and Organize
the Data 147
Quantitative Measurement 147
Quantitative Measures 151
Qualitative Data Analysis 155
Implementation 162
Summary 163

14 Display the Findings 167

Step 8 PRESENT: Portray the Data to Answer
the Question 167
Research Ethics 167
Quantitative Data 168
Qualitative Data 169
Analysis in Action 169
Tables, Figures, Charts, and Graphs 170
Summary 173

15 Answer the Question 176

Step 9 INTERPRET: Decode and Translate
the Data 176
Conclusions 177
Implications 177
x Contents
Recommendations 178
Write the Report 178

16 Determine Closure 184

Step 10 SYNTHESIZE: Combine and Report
the Findings 184
The Abstract 184
Researchers’ Responsibilities 186
Synthesis 187
Ethical Reporting 188
Summary 189

PART III
Resources 193

17 Research in Action 195

Step 1 Read 196
Step 2 Think 197
Step 3 Design 198
Step 4 Assess 200
Step 5 Select 201
Step 6 Collect 202
Step 7 Analyze 203
Step 8 Present 204
Step 9 Interpret 207
Step 10 Synthesize 208
Summary 209

18 Templates for Success 211

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study 211
Chapter 2 Literature Review 217
Chapter 3 Research Design and Method 219
Chapter 4 Results 224
Chapter 5 Conclusions, Implications, and
Recommendations 225

19 Providing Structure 229

Table of Contents 229
Tables, Figures, and Quotes 230
Manuscript Components 232
Summary 234

20 Annotated Bibliography 236

Research Foundations 237
Behavioral Research 240
 Contents xi
Library Research 244
Statistics and Data Analysis 246
Quantitative Methods 252
Qualitative Methods 256
Survey Research 264
Interview Research 267
Case Study Research 270
Reading and Writing Research Reports 272
Educational Research 278
Research Ethics 285
Action Research 287
Dissertation Research 290

Bibliography 294
Glossary 301
Appendix 310
Index 323
Introduction

The Elements of Inquiry: Research and Methods for Producing a

Quality Dissertation, Second Edition, provides an updated look
at the basic principles to be considered when reading or writing
about original research. It includes a new and expanded set of
examples for the steps to be followed along with recent modes of
handling research data and information. While stated as “steps”
the real idea is to have a manageable inventory of standards, or
benchmarks, or touchstones – basically a list of process steps or
stages – that describe what researchers or consumers should con-
sider or include when reading or doing research. There is a strong
focus on the research dissertation for graduate students.
The distinctive features of this book are as follows:

• The concept of research is set in a larger context of inquiry,

and a discussion of the philosophical basis and historical
growth of research as inquiry is provided.
• The steps for research provide a reference for reading research
reports to individuals not familiar with the basic techniques.
These steps allow readers to analyze, synthesize, interpret,
and use research reports based on the widely accepted tenets
of professional inquiry.
• The research steps in the text provide a checklist for those
who are carrying out research projects in their work or in
school, especially in projects separate from formal learning
about research, or in learning situations that require, but do
not include, instruction in inquiry.
• The process provided can aid in the design of a project and
in the decision-making necessary as a project progresses
through the basic stages of research to completion.
• There are in-class exercises, items for class discussion, and
possible assignments at the end of each chapter that provide
an opportunity to think about and apply the constructs dis-
cussed in the chapter. Flexibility in the responses allows for
application and extension across the wide range of topics
that exist in research.
• Examples of the use of the basic steps are provided that can
be compared to other sources or to the topic of a current
 Introduction xiii
project. Each chapter in Part II contains examples specific to
the research step under consideration.
• Templates for success, including a dissertation template and
dissertation quality review guide, are included with the text,
and provide a step-by-step guide for writing a traditional
five-chapter dissertation.
• There is an annotated Bibliography of over 250 research
textbooks separated into specific research topics that can lead
to rich sources of analysis as a research project grows and
develops.
• The Glossary provides immediate and succinct access to the
basic definitions of terms used in the lexicon of research.

Why Is It Important to Know the Basic Steps

of Research?
• Inquiry and research are the basic tools used to grow the
knowledge base for any topical area. Consumers and produc-
ers of research must follow the accepted path of creating and
interpreting research in order to assure that the results are
reliable, valid, and applicable to their own circumstance.
• Data-based decision-making is important for assessment and
evaluation that leads to change and improvement in the
professions. Using valid and reliable data to reach conclusions
that lead to program enhancements requires an understanding
of the process and techniques of research.
• Readers of research must take care to scrutinize publications
offered as research-based materials to sift false information
or erroneous conclusions from valid and reliable findings
derived from authentic and ethical research.
• A true and reasonable familiarity of the foundation of research
paradigms and their appropriate use is essential for the inter-
pretation and critique of research projects.

Hints on Using the Text

• Clearly, the basic use of this book is as a textbook for a short
course on research and research methods. The steps provided
outline a process that students could use to design and carry
out an in-class research project either individually or as a
group endeavor.
• At the authors’ home institution, the book is used as both
a teaching tool for research coursework, and as a continu-
ing guide for students as they complete their doctoral
dissertations.
• Another basic use of the book is as a reference tool when
reading research reports. The reader may ask: “Is that an
accepted method of drawing a sample?” The answer may be
found by checking the section on sampling in the text.
xiv Introduction
• A third method is as a checklist for doing a research project.
A student can plan a project by using the steps in the process,
making an educated judgment whether each step applies, and
how it applies if it does. Selections from the annotated Bib-
liography can be made to emphasize one or more research
types with more depth of coverage.
• Templates for writing a dissertation in the text provide a
roadmap or checklist for graduate students as they complete
their research and write their dissertation.
• Finally, this book should become a desk reference for those
who are not full-time researchers, but who are called upon
occasionally to do a data-based project, or who need to
review the research literature to help with a professional
decision. By checking the book’s Index and finding the suc-
cinct discussion of the item that needs exposition, the reader
can refresh her or his memory of that particular research
topic.
Acknowledgments

First and foremost, the students of research who have interacted

with the content of this book in its several forms prior to formal
publication, and in its first edition, must be recognized. Student
reactions to the use of the raw materials helped immeasurably
in determining the final presentation of the steps, and the work
done by students provided real-life examples of the use of these
steps. Next, the research team of staff and faculty at Edgewood
College, who contributed to the development of the templates for
success that are included in this book, must also be recognized.
The people and the supportive environment at Edgewood College
helped make the idea become a reality.
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