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On Words and Sounds
 On Words and Sounds:
A Selection of Papers from the 40th PLM, 2009

Edited by

Kamila DĊbowska-Kozłowska
and Katarzyna Dziubalska-Kołaczyk
 On Words and Sounds:
A Selection of Papers from the 40th PLM, 2009,
Edited by Kamila DĊbowska-Kozłowska and Katarzyna Dziubalska-Kołaczyk

This book first published 2011

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2011 by Kamila DĊbowska-Kozłowska and Katarzyna Dziubalska-Kołaczyk and

contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-3161-1, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-3161-1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ....................................................................................................... vii

The Speech-to-Song-Illusion Revisited ....................................................... 1

Simone Falk and Tamara Rathcke

Occasional Singers Sing More Proficiently when Memory Load

is Reduced ................................................................................................. 27
Magdalena Berkowska and Simone Dalla Bella

Interaction between Structure and Melody: The Case of Kabyle Nouns... 37

Samir Ben Si Saïd

L1 and L2 Processes in Speakers with Sensorineural Hearing Loss ......... 49

Marta Marecka and Monika PołczyĔska

Language Used by Polish Americans: Yet another Variant of English

Spoken by Poles ........................................................................................ 73
Łukasz Furtak

Internal Vowel Alternation as Classification in Nominal and Verbal

Systems in English According to the Theory of Phonology as Human
Behaviour .................................................................................................. 94
Elena Even-Simkin and Yishai Tobin

Sound Changes and Variation in the Vowel System of the Viennese

Dialect ..................................................................................................... 138
Sylvia Moosmüller

N-words: Predicates or Quantifiers?........................................................ 155

Mojmír Doþekal

Noun Class Assignment in Swahili via Bayesian Probability ................. 180

John Olstad
vi Table of Contents

Architecture of Grammar and Phi-feature Valuing in Clause-initial

Discourse Ellipses ................................................................................... 195
Mari Nygård

Subsectivity, Meaning and Syntactic Position......................................... 218

Jeffrey Punske

Instances of Posthead Modification in Russian NPs................................ 247

Helen Trugman

Distribution of Classificatory Adjectives and Genitives in Polish NPs... 280

BoĪena Cetnarowska, Agnieszka Pysz and Helen Trugman

Transitivity as a Marker of Valuation...................................................... 311

Maciej Kielar

To Inherit Everything: Variation in Quantifier Restriction...................... 323

Konrad SzczeĞniak
 PREFACE

The present volume On Words and Sounds is a collection of selected

papers from PLM2009. The PoznaĔ Linguistic Meeting (PLM) is an
annual general linguistics conference that continues the tradition of the
Polish-English contrastive conferences started by Jacek Fisiak in 1970.
The new name "PoznaĔ Linguistic Meeting" and profile were introduced
in 1997 by Katarzyna Dziubalska-Kołaczyk when she took over as the
Head of the Organising Committee. The Meetings are organised by the
School of English, Adam Mickiewicz University, PoznaĔ.
The book consists of fifteen articles, each of which can be read
separately or in relation to others. The book will definitely appeal to the
academic readership interested in the linguistic disciplines such as:
phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, sociolinguistics, pragmatics
and clinical linguistics. Collectively, the contributions investigate the
interrelationships among those disciplines as well as between language
and music. The central aim for the scholars was to explore PLM2009
leitmotif 'Variants, Variability, Variation' and show that the complete
study of language involves diversified frameworks often rooted in the
interdisciplinary approaches. This book aims at bringing together scholars
aware of the need to merge individual linguistic disciplines and to provide
comprehensive models for the study of the complexity of language.

—Kamila DĊbowska-Kozłowska and Katarzyna Dziubalska-Kołaczyk,

Editors
 THE SPEECH-TO-SONG-ILLUSION REVISITED

SIMONE FALK
LUDWIG-MAXIMILIANS-UNIVERSITY, MUNICH, GERMANY
AND TAMARA RATHCKE
UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW, UNITED KINGDOM

Abstract
The present study investigates the boundaries of speech and song from
an acoustic-perceptual perspective. Using the speech-to-song illusion as a
method, we tested rhythmic and tonal hypotheses in order to find out
whether acoustic characteristics can cue the perceptual classification of a
sentence by German listeners as sung or spoken. First, our results show
that, despite individual differences, the speech-to-song illusion is a robust
perceptual phenomenon comparable to those known in visual perception.
Second, the experiment revealed that acoustic parameters – especially
tonal structure – facilitate the perceptual shift from speech to song
pointing to an acoustically guided decoding strategy for speech- vs. song-
like signals.

1. Introduction
The question whether music and language should be considered as
modular entities or share common resources and processes has been hotly
debated in recent discussions (Peretz and Coltheart 2003, Patel 2008,
Peretz in press). Concerning brain modularity, the phenomenon of song is
especially intriguing as it obviously combines musical and linguistic
structures. The existence of musical speech or music with words seems per
se to corroborate the hypothesis of at least some shared domains (Patel in
press). Nevertheless, the idea that singing might be exclusive to a
language- or music-specific module and that during singing "music may
act as a parasite of speaking" or vice versa has also been discussed (Peretz
2003, in press).
2 The Speech-to-Song-Illusion Revisited

With respect to this controversy, it is worth taking a closer look at the

mechanisms and acoustic premises guiding the perceptual conceptualisation
of speech as opposed to song. In particular, we are interested in a
perceptual phenomenon – the ‘speech-to-song-illusion’ (see Deutsch 1995,
Deutsch et al. 2008) – that provides some evidence that an acoustic signal
can be perceived both as speech and song.

1.1 An auditory illusion: speech-to-song

The illusion arises when a spoken utterance is presented in a loop so
that the same prosodic structure with its speech-related characteristics is
repeated over and over again. Surprisingly, listeners tend to perceive a
shift from speech to song during the course of repetitions when they are
told to judge the phrase as song- or speech-like. Unlike most visual
illusions, this auditory effect seems to be unidirectional, i.e. once
perceived as sung, a phrase cannot be perceived as spoken again (Deutsch
1995). So far, the illusion has only been studied with English listeners
using a single English phrase ((but they) sometimes behave so strangely)
which was originally spoken in context by the author herself (Deutsch
1995).
In an experiment by Deutsch et al. (2008), subjects listened 10 times to
this phrase. After each repetition, they were asked to judge the phrase on a
five-point-scale as speech or song. Unfortunately, the depiction in Deutsch
et al.'s report only compares the judgments after the first and last
presentation of the stimulus. This leaves the question open if the perceptual
shift occurs abruptly at some point in the loop or if it is rather a continuous
process. Additionally, it has been reported that the acoustics of the looped
stimulus had to be unchanged since slight transposition of pitch or random
permutation of syllables blocked the illusion (Deutsch et al. 2008). The
speech-to-song illusion seriously challenges a strictly modular view of
speech and music processing. In a modular architecture (Peretz and
Coltheart 2003), the information available in the acoustic input is sent to
task-specific modules that specialise in different sorts of input features for
further processing. This implies that acoustic characteristics would
predetermine if the incoming signal was processed in either music- or
speech-related modules. The speech-to-song-illusion poses a problem
since the acoustics of the same input can be perceived and processed both
as speech and song without changing the incoming signal. Therefore,
Deutsch et al. (2008) – while adhering to the modular concept – proposed
that the same input activated separate pathways of speech versus song
processing during the task. They also concluded that the perception of a
 Simone Falk and Tamara Rathcke 3

phrase as speech or song could not be determined by specific music- or

speech-like acoustic properties.

1.2 On the acoustics of speech vs. song

There are mainly two core features – pitch and rhythm – which are
shared by both speech and music. However, these features are structured
in a music/language-specific way, i.e. rhythm and pitch are associated with
different acoustic instances depending on which medium/style they
represent.
As far as pitch is concerned, scalar structure is said to be one of the
most prominent musical features that speech generally lacks (Krumhansl
2005). Scalar structure in Western tonal music is represented by two
scales, the major and the minor. For each of them, several tonal intervals
are precisely defined in their tonal relationships and each deviation from
these intervals is perceived as dissonant (Schellenberg and Trehub 1996).
There is no such strict system of allowed tonal intervals in speech. The
scaling of pitch targets and their intervals can vary considerably, the
variation being conditioned phonetically (e.g. Lieberman and Pierrehumbert
1984), phonologically (e.g. Niebuhr 2007) or by discourse functions like
grade of prominence (e.g. Ladd and Morton 1997). Furthermore, f0-
trajectories of speech are characterised by f0-movements with variable
slopes (t’Hart, Collier and Cohen 1990) whereas temporal stability of f0-
targets is typical of pitch events in music (Zatorre et al. 2002). These
differences are illustrated in Fig. 1 showing a German sentence (Im Herbst
bricht sich das Licht im bunten Laub, English: 'In autumn, light is
refracted by colourful leaves.'), which was both spoken and musically
interpreted by the first author. As shown in the left-hand panel, the f0-
trajectory of the sung phrase looks like a staircase leading up and down as
it is formed by several f0-levels of equal intervals (seconds) whose
number roughly corresponds to the number of syllables in the phrase. In
contrast, f0-trajectories of the spoken phrase shown in the right-hand panel
contain a series of falling and rising movements which vary in their slopes
and intervals.
4 The Speech-to-Song-Illusion Revisited

Figure 1: Waveforms and f0-trajectories of the sung (left-hand panel) and spoken
(right-hand panel) German utterance “Im Herbst bricht sich das Licht im bunten
Laub” (see text). F0 is scaled logarithmically.
 Simone Falk and Tamara Rathcke 5

Rhythm can be defined as the patterning of accentuation and grouping

in sequences of events which systematically recur in time (e.g. Arvaniti
2009, Clarke 1999). As far as grouping is concerned, a composition of
segments organised in syllables is widely agreed to be the smallest
rhythmical unit of speech (Cutler 1991). In contrast, intervocalic intervals
were assumed to constitute the smallest rhythmic units in song (Sundberg
1989). The predominance of intervocalic to syllabic chunking in song is
demonstrated in Fig. 2, comparing both possibilities on the same sung
German phrase Schneeflöckchen, Weissröckchen, wann kommst du
geschneit (taken from a Christmas song; in English: 'Little snowflake, little
white skirt, when will you appear to come down to earth'). As pointed out
in Fig. 2, there is a tendency towards equal temporal spacing when
segments of a sung phrase with equal note durations are arranged as
intervocalic intervals but not as syllables: the mean of syllabic duration
dur (S) is 0.47 sec with a standard deviation of 0.16 sec, whereas the mean
of intervocalic intervals dur(ii) is 0.45 sec with a standard deviation of
only 0.10 sec. Related to the temporal structure, isochrony has been widely
discussed in both speech and music. However, speech patterns widely
failed to show any isochrony in production (see Arvaniti 2009, Nolan and
Asu 2009 for a critical overview), whereas temporal patterns in music are
generally structured in a more systematic, isochronous way (metrically
bounded music: e.g. Cooper and Meyer 1960, Drake and Palmer 1993).
Against the background of considerations given above, the English
phrase used by Deutsch et al. (2008) was remarkable with respect to its
tonal make-up. First of all, the phrase-final interval of 8 semitones (st)
constitutes a minor sixth which is a well-defined consonant musical
interval. Furthermore, besides some micro-prosodic f0-perturbations
induced by consonants (Lövqvist et al. 1989), there are several relatively
plain f0-stretches during the course of the sentence (especially the level-
like production of the phrase-final word strangely), which rather relates to
the sung than to the spoken example in Fig. 1. Hypothetically, the
coincidence of relatively stable f0-trajectories and the harmonic interval in
phrase-final position may have facilitated the occurrence of the speech-to-
song illusion as reported in Deutsch et al. (2008).
6 The Speech-to-Song-Illusion Revisited

Figure 2: Labels and durations of syllables (S) as opposed to intervocalic intervals

(ii) of the German phrase Schneeflöckchen, Weissröckchen, wann kommst du
geschneit sung by an amateur female singer.
 Simone Falk and Tamara Rathcke 7

Figure 3: Waveform, syllabic labelling and f0-trajectory of the English phrase but
they sometimes behave so strangely used in the illusion experiment by Deutsch et
al. (2008). See text for more details.
8 The Speech-to-Song-Illusion Revisited

1.3 Musicality: external factors of illusion perception

As we know from speech and music pathology, there is a certain
autonomy between song on the one hand and speech perception and
production on the other. For one thing, there are aphasic subjects with
severe expressive speech pathology who are still able to sing (Warren et
al. 2003, Mogharbel et al. 2005/2006, Peretz et al. 2004a). On the other
hand, there are acquired or congenital amusics who can perform quite
normally in speech-prosody related tasks (Peretz and Hyde 2003, Hyde
and Peretz 2004). Congenital amusia is a multiple-faceted music
processing deficit which affects the ability to, for example, judge if two
melodies are the same or different, detect when music is out of key,
produce pitch intervals and/or recognize what should be familiar tunes
from their culture (Ayotte et al. 2002, Dalla Bella et al. 2009). The core
deficit in this disorder concerns pitch processing, therefore individuals
with this deficit are also called tone-deaf in the literature (Foxton et al.
2004, Hyde and Peretz 2004).
However, a deeper link between the processing of melodic and
intonational pitch is also discussed (Patel et al. 1998, Nicholson et al.
2003). Patel et al. (1998) studied two individuals with acquired amusia
subsequent to cortical brain damage. The salient finding from this study
was that for both amusics, performance in a linguistic intonation task was
very similar to performance in a tone sequence task, suggesting shared
processing of melodic contours across the two domains.
Besides pathological cases, there is some evidence that music
education can positively influence the subjects’ ability to differentiate
intervals of varying range (see t’Hart 1981). For these reasons, we decided
(1) to take into consideration musical training and (2) to perform a subtest
of the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA, Peretz et al.
2003) in order to assess whether some subjects could be at risk to be
congenitally tone-deaf.

2. Perception experiment
2.1 Hypotheses
In contrast to Deutsch et al. (2008), we generally assume that acoustic
properties of a given signal do play a role in inducing a perceptual shift
from speech to song (the Main Hypothesis). As discussed in 1.2, the
stimulus used for the original illusion task has inherently been optimal in
its tonal layout to generate the effect. Therefore, we are going to explore
 Simone Falk and Tamara Rathcke 9

whether and which acoustic features of a stimulus are better than others in
inducing the shift from speech to song. More precisely, we hypothesise
that two sets of signal-related features can account for (1) the fact that the
auditory illusion emerges and (2) how rapidly it occurs within a loop.
The Tonal Hypothesis assumes that the perceptual shift is predominantly
induced by tonal properties of a spoken utterance, namely:
(1.a) Target stability: If the tonal make-up of a sentence has more
stable tonal targets, the shift will occur earlier compared to a
sentence with unstable targets.
(1.b) Interval structure: If the tonal properties of a sentence involve
scalar relationships of music, the shift will occur more easily.

In contrast, the Rhythmic Hypothesis assumes that the shift is primarily

facilitated by rhythmic factors such as:
(2.a) Accentual regularity: If accented syllables are more regularly
spaced, the shift will occur earlier compared to a non-regular
distribution of accents since temporal regularity of beats increases
the perception of a strong rhythm.
(2.b) Segmental grouping: Temporal grouping of segments into
intervocalic intervals of same length will lead to an earlier shift
from speech to song in contrast to a syllabic grouping of segments.

2.2 Method
2.2.1 Materials and test stimuli

With respect to the Rhythmic Hypothesis (2.a), two sentences were

chosen as experimental materials (bold = accented):

Im Regal liegen Nadel und Faden. (English: 'There are needle and
twine on the shelf.')
Im Garten blühen heute Klee und Mohn. (English: 'Today, clover and
poppy are blooming in the garden.')

Spoken with broad focus, accents appear regularly in the first sentence,
constituting a kind of anapest (two weak units are followed by a strong
beat) as opposed to the second sentence where there is no such regularity.
However, both sentences have 10 syllables and 3 accents in a broad focus.
Four sentences were added to serve as fillers (see 2.2.2). All sentences
were read by a female speaker of Standard German and recorded in a
sound-isolated booth at the Institute of Phonetics and Speech Processing in
10 The Speech-to-Song-Illusion Revisited

Munich. All durational and f0-manipulations were done using Praat

(Boersma and Weenink 2001). Typical f0-values of the speaker as well as
her intonation patterns produced in both test utterances were used as the
basis for creating tonal stimuli. To implement the tonal target stability
hypothesis (1.a), f0-contours between relevant f0-targets were either kept
stable or changed gradually with respect to segmental landmarks.
Regarding the tonal interval structure hypothesis (1.b), we implemented
the perfect fifth (interval of 7 semitones, st) twice in the signal: once as an
ascending interval at the first pitch-accent and again as a descending
interval at the last pitch-accent of the sentence. The interval in the speech-
like condition was set to 5.5 st which should not be interpreted in terms of
music scale. A top and base-line declination of 0.5 st was applied to pitch-
accented and unaccented syllables. Fig. 4 compares f0-trajectories of
stimuli created for both test sentences: (1) music-like stimuli with scalar
structure and stable f0-targets are indicated by black lines, whereas (2)
speech-like stimuli with non-scalar relationship between f0-targets and
gradually changing f0-contours are shown by grey lines.
To test the temporal grouping hypothesis (2.b), the sentences had to be
chunked into syllables as well as into intervocalic intervals. Due to schwa
reduction in both test sentences (in /OL‫ڴ‬JȩQ/, /EO\‫ڴ‬ȩQ/ and /ID‫ڴ‬GȩQ/),
distinguishing 10 rhythmic units for both conditions proved difficult. We
decided to consider phrase-medial reduced forms as single rhythmic units,
i.e. >OL‫ڴ‬JQ], [EO\‫ڴ‬Q] and phrase-final >ID‫ڴ‬GQ‫ ]ݙ‬as two different units (see
Tables 1 and 2). This decision was made with respect to the finding that
phrase-final rhythmic units tend to have additional duration when
compared to phrase-medial units (e.g. Lehiste 1973). As shown in Table 1,
intervocalic intervals all had equal duration. In contrast, in the speech-like
condition (Table 2), unaccented syllables were shorter than accented ones,
as is usually the case in speech (e.g. Beckman and Edwards 1990). In each
sentence, duration of the final rhythmic unit accounted for final
lengthening. The total length of every test sentence was 1.85 sec. Note that
there were some small deviations from these target values as manipulations
were done manually.
The duration and tonal make-up of the filler stimuli were also
manipulated in order to establish a homogenous experimental signal. Four
rhythmic and/or tonal interpretations were created for each of the four
fillers. The procedure described above resulted in 16 test stimuli (2
sentences x 2 durations x 2 f0-contours x 2 f0-ranges) and 16 filler stimuli
(4 sentences x 4 interpretations). Each of the 32 stimuli was looped with
10 repetitions and a 0.4 sec pause between them. Note that the pause
within the loop used in Deutsch et al. (2008) was twice as long as the
 Simone Falk and Tamara Rathcke 11

pause implemented in our stimuli. During pilot sessions, a shorter pause

seemed to support the illusion effect.

Figure 4: F0-trajectories of the music-like tonal structure (black lines) and the
speech-like tonal structure (grey lines) in the test sentence Im Regal liegen Nadel
und Faden (left-hand side) as opposed to the test sentence Im Garten blühen heute
Klee und Mohn (right-hand side).
12 The Speech-to-Song-Illusion Revisited

Table 1. Chunking and duration of intervocalic units (in sec, song-like

condition 2.b). Capitals: pitch-accented vowels.

imr eg All ignn Ad el undf Ad n

Units img Art nbl ünh eut ekl E undm On Total

Duration 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.25 1.85

Table 2. Chunking and duration of syllabic units (in sec, speech-like

condition 2.b). Capitals: pitch-accented vowels.

Units im re gAl lign nA del und fA dn Total

Duration 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.15 0.35 0.25 1.85
Units im gAr tn blün heu te klE und mOn Total
Duration 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.45 1.85

2.2.2 Filler stimuli

The fillers were pairs of sentences with syntactic and rhythmic

structure similar to the target test sentences, but they differed from those
semantically, morpho-phonologically and partly with respect to the
number of pitch accents. The following sentences served as fillers (bold =
accented):

Die Rinder kann man nicht finden. (English: 'You cannot find the
cows.')
Die Kinder soll man nicht binden. (English: 'You should not take
possession of your children.')
Im Himmel singen die Engel. (English: 'In heaven, angels are singing')
Im Stall quengelt der Bengel. (English: 'In the barn, the baby boy is
whining')

The fillers were manipulated both tonally and rhythmically resulting in

16 additional stimuli (4 sentences x 4 manipulations). Rhythmical
manipulations were applied randomly to the four sentences and comprised
varying lengthening grades of intervocalic intervals, syllables or whole
phrases. For each sentence, two stimuli with level-like and two stimuli
with contour-like tonal make-ups were included.
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