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The Social Construction of Literacy

Literacy – the ability to produce and interpret written text – has long
been viewed as the basis of all school achievement; a measure of
success that defines both an ‘educated’ person, and an educable one.
In this volume, a team of leading experts raise questions central to
the acquisition of literacy. Why do children with similar classroom
experiences show different levels of educational achievement? And
why do these differences in literacy, and ultimately employability,
persist? By looking critically at the western view of a ‘literate’
person, the authors present a new perspective on literacy acquisition,
viewing it as a socially constructed skill, whereby children must
acquire discourse strategies that are socially ‘approved’. This exten-
sively revised second edition contains an updated introduction and
bibliography, and each chapter has been rewritten to account for the
most recent research. Groundbreaking and revealing, this volume
will continue to have far-reaching implications for educational
theory and practice.

J E N N Y C O O K-G U M P E R Z
is Professor in the Gervirtz Graduate
School of Education, University of California, Santa Barbara. She
has previously published The Social Construction of Literacy
(Cambridge University Press, 1986), Children’s Worlds and Chil-
dren’s Languages (1986), and Social Control and Socialization:
A Study of Class Differences in the Language of Maternal Control
(1973).
Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics

EDITORS
Paul Drew, Marjorie Harness Goodwin, John J. Gumperz, Deborah
Schiffrin

1 Discourse Strategies John J. Gumperz

2 Language and Social Identity edited by John J. Gumperz
3 The Social Construction of Literacy edited by Jenny Cook-
Gumperz
4 Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage Penelope
Brown and Stephen C. Levinson
5 Discourse Markers Deborah Schiffrin
6 Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue, and Imagery in Conver-
sational Discourse Deborah Tannen
7 Conducting Interaction: Patterns of Behaviour in Focused
Encounters Adam Kendon
8 Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings edited by
Paul Drew and John Heritage
9 Grammar in Interaction: Adverbial Clauses in American Eng-
lish Conversations Cecilia E. Ford
10 Crosstalk and Culture in Sino-American Communication
Linda W. L. Young
11 AIDS Counselling: Institutional Interaction and Clinical
Practice Anssi Peräkylä
12 Prosody in Conversation; Interactional Studies edited by
Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen and Margret Selting
13 Interaction and Grammar Elinor Ochs, Emanuel A. Schegloff
and Sandra A. Thompson
14 Credibility in Court: Communicative Practices in the Cam-
orra Trials Marco Jacquemet
15 Interaction and the Development of Mind A. J. Wootton
16 The News Interview: Journalists and Public Figures on the Air
Steven Clayman and John Heritage
17 Gender and Politeness Sara Mills
18 Laughter in Interaction Philip Glenn
19 Matters of Opinion: Talking about Public Issues Greg Myers
20 Communication in Medical Care: Interaction between Pri-
mary Care Physicians and Patients edited by John Heritage
and Douglas Maynard
21 In Other Words: Variation in Reference and Narrative
Deborah Schiffrin
22 Language in Late Modernity: Interaction in an Urban School
Ben Rampton
23 Discourse and Identity edited by Anna De Fina, Deborah
Schiffrin and Michael Bamberg
24 Reporting Talk: Reported Speech in Interaction edited by
Elizabeth Holt and Rebecca Clift
The Social Construction
of Literacy

Second edition

Edited by
J E N N Y C O O K-G U M P E R Z
University of California, Santa Barbara
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521819633

© Cambridge University Press 2006

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2006

ISBN-13 978-0-511-33381-1 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-10 0-511-33381-1 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-81963-3 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-81963-6 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Contents

List of figures page ix

List of tables x
List of contributors xi
Preface xii
Acknowledgments xv

1 The social construction of literacy

Jenny Cook-Gumperz 1
2 Literacy and schooling: an unchanging equation?
Jenny Cook-Gumperz 19
3 Interactional sociolinguistics in the study of schooling
John J. Gumperz and Jenny Cook-Gumperz 50
4 The language experience of children at home
and at school
Gordon Wells 76
5 Narrative presentations: an oral preparation
for literacy with first graders
Sarah Michaels 110
6 Differential instruction in reading groups
James Collins 138
7 Organizational constraints on reading group mobility
Donna Eder 165
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viii Contents

8 Developing mathematical literacy in a

bilingual classroom
Douglas R. Campbell 185
9 Spoken language strategies and reading acquisition
Herbert D. Simons and Sandra Murphy 218
10 Speaking and writing: discourse strategies
and the acquisition of literacy
James Collins and Sarah Michaels 245
11 The implicit discourse genres of standardized
testing: what verbal analogy items require
of test takers
Mary Catherine O’Connor 264

References 288
Author index 311
Subject index 313
Figures

7.1 Group size prior to and after each set of moves page 174
7.2 Different aptitude distributions divided into
four equal-size groups 177
8.1 Equivalence of answer structures 207
9.1 Spoken language strategies and reading acquisition 233
Tables

4.1 Comparison of speech at home

and school page 84
4.2 Proportional distribution of child speech at
home and school 87
4.3 Proportional distribution of adult speech at
home and school 88
4.4 Proportional distribution of teachers’ speech
in one-to-one and group interactions 95
6.1 Time on task 148
Contributors

DOUGLAS R. CAMPBELL School of Education, Michigan State

University, East Lansing, MI
JAMES COLLINS School of Education, University at Albany, State
University of New York
JENNY COOK-GUMPERZ Professor, Gervirtz Graduate School of
Education, University of California, Santa Barbara
DONNA EDER Professor of Sociology, Indiana University
JOHN J. GUMPERZ Professor Emeritus, University of California,
Berkeley
SARAH MICHAELS Associate Professor, Department of Education,
Clark University, Worcester MA
SANDRA MURPHY Professor, School of Education, University of
California, Davis
MARY CATHERINE O’CONNOR Director, Program in Applied
Linguistics, and Associate Professor of Education, School of
Education, Boston University
HERBERT D. SIMONS Associate Professor, Graduate School of
Education, University of California, Berkeley
GORDON WELLS Professor, Department of Education, University of
California, Santa Cruz
Preface

First published in an earlier edition twenty years ago, this book was
part of a new wave of studies exploring literacy from anthropo-
logical and social historical perspectives that began to appear from
the late 1970s, beginning with the publication of Goody’s Domesti-
cation of the Savage Mind (1977). The volume differs from others
in that it focuses on literacy as a sociolinguistic process, in which
language and language use in all their ramifications are central to
the study of literacy. Most usually described as the production and
interpretation of written text, literacy in this volume is seen as
interactively and therefore socially constructed through verbal ex-
changes that take place over time in many communicative settings.
It is literacy in this broader sense that defines not just an educated
person, but also and more importantly, an educable one.
Like others in the Interactional Sociolinguistics series, this
volume seeks to provide insights into the workings of institutional
processes in contemporary urban societies through case studies of
verbal encounters that typify individuals’ experiences in these insti-
tutions. The assumption is that many issues that have long been at
the center of public debate such as equal access to educational
opportunity arise at least in part as a result of inferences and
judgments made in the course of everyday interactive experience.
By studying the often unstated beliefs and preconceptions on which
such judgments are based along with the verbal exchanges in which
interactants participate, we can gain an understanding of how
evaluations and educational outcomes are socially constructed. In
this way the process of schooling, a key constituent of social re-
production, can be opened up to micro-analytic scrutiny through
Preface xiii

in-depth analysis of verbal communication in specific educational

settings.
The immediate context for the book was a two-year investiga-
tion of classroom interaction in an ethnically diverse Northern
California school system (Cook-Gumperz et al. 1981), funded by
the US National Institute of Education (NIE) under the ‘Teaching as
a Linguistic Process’ program which sought to apply ethnographic
and linguistic perspectives on language use to educational problems
of learning and school achievement. Although classroom inter-
action studies have a long history most existing research has tended
to concentrate either solely on macro-societal issues or on psycho-
metric assessments of test performance and teacher–student rela-
tions. It is only during the last decades that the potential of in-depth
analysis of the context-bound ways in which information is
conveyed, and understandings are negotiated, has come to be real-
ized. Earlier on such research was influenced by studies in the
ethnography of communication where language use was treated
as a social phenomenon and the grammatical characteristics of
verbal behavior were analyzed in the context of cultural values
and social attributes of participants in naturally occurring situ-
ations (Gumperz and Hymes, Directions in Sociolinguistics 1972/
86; Cazden, John and Hymes Functions of Language in the
Classroom 1972/85).
The historical impetus for the work reported in this volume were
the studies conducted at the Language Behavior Research Labora-
tory in University of California, Berkeley. Beginning with a summer
workshop, ‘Language, Society and the Child’, held shortly after the
Laboratory was founded in 1968, researchers set out to explore
perspectives on language socialization concentrating on cross-cul-
tural and cross-class comparisons in context specific settings. Many
of the participants in the work of the Laboratory and in the original
conference have gone on to play important roles in developing new
approaches to language acquisition, language use, and language in
education.
From this newly emergent focus, the classroom came to be seen
as an important setting for research on social issues in urban
society. The volume owes an intellectual debt to this tradition.
The chapters by Campbell, Collins, Michaels, O’Connor, Simons
and Murphy, Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz continue this tradition
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