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Climate Change Impacts on Urban Pests
CABI Climate Change Series
Climate change is a major environmental challenge to the world today, with significant
threats to ecosystems, food security, water resources and economic stability overall. In order
to understand and research ways to alleviate the effects of climate change, scientists need
access to information that not only provides an overview of and background to the field, but
also keeps them up to date with the latest research findings.
This series addresses many topics relating to climate change, including strategies to
develop sustainable systems that minimize impact on climate and/or mitigate the effects of
human activity on climate change. Coverage will encompass all areas of environmental and
agricultural sciences. Aimed at researchers, upper level students and policy makers, titles in
the series provide international coverage of topics related to climate change, including both
a synthesis of facts and discussions of future research perspectives and possible solutions.

Titles Available
1. Climate Change and Crop Production
Edited by Matthew P. Reynolds
2. Crop Stress Management and Climate Change
Edited by José L. Araus and Gustavo A. Slafer
3. Temperature Adaptation in a Changing Climate: Nature at Risk
Edited by Kenneth Storey and Karen Tanino
4. Plant Genetic Resources and Climate Change
Edited by Michael Jackson, Brian Ford-Lloyd and Martin Parry
5. Climate Change Impact and Adaptation in Agricultural Systems
Edited by Jürg Fuhrer and Peter J. Gregory
6. Livestock Production and Climate Change
Edited by Pradeep K. Malik, Raghavendra Bhatta, Junichi Takahashi,
Richard A. Kohn and Cadaba S. Prasad
7. Climate Change and Insect Pests
Edited by Christer Björkman and Pekka Niemelä
8. Climate Change and Agricultural Water Management in Developing Countries
Edited by Chu Thai Hoanh, Vladimir Smakhtin and Robyn Johnston
9. Climate Change Challenges and Adaptations at Farm-level
Edited by Naveen Prakash Singh, Cynthia Bantilan, Kattarkandi Byjesh and
­Swamikannu Nedumaran
10. Climate Change Impacts on Urban Pests
Edited by Partho Dhang
Climate Change Impacts on Urban Pests

Edited by

Partho Dhang
Independent Consultant, Manila, Philippines
 CABI is a trading name of CAB International
CABI CABI
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Wallingford 8th Floor
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Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 (617)682-9015

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© CAB International 2017. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
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recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Title: Climate change impacts on urban pests / edited by Partho Dhang.
Other titles: CABI climate change series ; 10.
Description: Boston, MA : CABI, [2016] | Series: CABI climate change series ; 10 |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016022770 (print) | LCCN 2016023630 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781780645377 (hbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781780645384 (ePDF) |
ISBN 9781786391162 (ePub)
Subjects: LCSH: Urban pests--Climatic factors. | Climatic changes.
Classification: LCC SB603.3 .C55 2016 (print) | LCC SB603.3 (ebook) |
DDC 628.9/6091732--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016022770

ISBN-13: 978 1 78064 537 7

Commissioning editor: Rachael Russell

Editorial assistant: Emma McCann
Production editor: Tim Kapp

Typeset by AMA DataSet Ltd, Preston, UK.

Printed and bound in the UK by Antony Rowe, CPI Group (UK) Ltd.
 Contents

Contributors vii

Acknowledgements ix

1 Climate Change Effects on Urban Pest Insects 1

Richard F. Comont

2 Climate Change and Urban Pest Management 15

Partho Dhang

3 Climate Change and the New Dynamics of Urban Pest Management in

North America 31
Steven R. Sims and Arthur G. Appel

4 Natural Disasters, Extreme Events and Vector-borne Diseases: Impact on

Urban Systems 50
Chester G. Moore

5 Survival of Formosan Subterranean Termite Colonies during Periods of

Flooding 65
Carrie Cottone and Nan-Yao Su

6 Termites and a Changing Climate 80

Donald Ewart, Lina Nunes, Teresa de Troya and Magdalena Kutnik

7 Fly Populations and Problems in a Changing Climate 95

Mohamed F. Sallam, Roberto M. Pereira and Philip G. Koehler

8 Impact of Climate Change on Medically Important Ticks in Europe and

Their Control 111
Aleksandra Gliniewicz, Grzegorz Karbowiak, Ewa Mikulak, Marta Supergan-Marwicz,
Agnieszka Królasik and Joanna Myślewicz

v
vi Contents

9 Climate Change and its Effect on Urban Mosquitoes in South America 127
Tamara Nunes de Lima-Camara and Nildimar Alves Honório

10 Urbanization, Climate Change and Malaria Transmission in Sub-Saharan

Africa 141
Eliningaya J. Kweka, Humphrey D. Mazigo, Yousif E. Himeidan, Domenica Morona and
Stephen Munga

11 Climate Change and Vector-borne Diseases in the Urban Ecosystem in

India 154
Ramesh C. Dhiman and Poonam Singh

12 Climate Change and Urban Human Health 165

Martha Macedo de Lima Barata

13 Innovative Formulations Useful for Area-wide Application Suitable for

Climate Change 174
David Liszka and Pawel Swietoslawski

Index 185
 Contributors

Arthur G. Appel, Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, 301 Funchess Hall,
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Martha Macedo de Lima Barata, Av. Epitacio Pessoa, 4560 apto 601, Lagoa – CEP 22471-
003, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. E-mail: [email protected]
Richard F. Comont, Bumblebee Conservation Trust, Centre for Ecology & Hydrology
Wallingford, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Oxfordshire OX10 8BB, UK. E-mail:
[email protected]
Carrie Cottone, City of New Orleans Mosquito, Termite & Rodent Control Board, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Teresa de Troya, Head of Wood Protection Laboratory, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR),
National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA) Ctra.
Coruña km 7, 28040-Madrid, Spain.
Partho Dhang, 2410 Belarmino Street, Bangkal, Makati City, 1233, Philippines. E-mail:
[email protected]
Ramesh C. Dhiman, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka,
Delhi-110077, India. E-mail: [email protected]
Donald Ewart, PO Box 1044 Research 3095, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
Aleksandra Gliniewicz, National Institute of Public Health – National Institute of Hygiene,
Chocimska 24, 00-791 Warsaw, Poland. E-mail: [email protected]
Yousif E. Himeidan, Africa Technical Research Centre, Vector Health International, P.O.
Box 15500, Arusha, Tanzania
Nildimar Alves Honório, Laboratório de Mosquitos Transmissores de Hematozoários,
Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Avenida Brasil, 4365, Manguinhos,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, CEP 21040-360
Grzegorz Karbowiak, W. Stefański Institute of Parasitology of Polish Academy of Sciences,
Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland.
Philip G. Koehler, Department of Entomology and Nematology, UF/IFAS Extension,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Agnieszka Królasik, National Institute of Public Health – National Institute of Hygiene,
Chocimska 24, 00-791 Warsaw, Poland.
Magdalena Kutnik, Head of Biology Laboratory, Chair of CEN/TC 38, Technological
Institute FCBA, Allées de Boutaut – BP 227, 33028 Bordeaux Cedex, France

vii
viii Contributors

Eliningaya J. Kweka, Division of Livestock and Human Diseases Vector Control, Tropical
Pesticides Research Institute, PO Box 3024, Arusha, Tanzania and Department of
Medical Parasitology and Entomology, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences,
PO Box 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania. E-mail: [email protected]
David Liszka, ICB Pharma, ul. Mozdzierzowcow 6a, Jaworzno, Poland. E-mail: david.
[email protected]
Humphrey D. Mazigo, Department of Medical Parasitology and Entomology, Catholic
University of Health and Allied Sciences, PO Box 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania
Ewa Mikulak, National Institute of Public Health – National Institute of Hygiene,
Chocimska 24, 00-791 Warsaw, Poland
Chester G. Moore, Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Pathology, Arthropod-
borne & Infectious Diseases Laboratory (AIDL), 1690 Campus Delivery, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1690, USA. E-mail: chester.moore@colostate.
edu
Domenica Morona, Department of Medical Parasitology and Entomology, Catholic
University of Health and Allied Sciences, PO Box 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania
Stephen Munga, Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute,
Kisumu, Kenya
Joanna Myślewicz, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787
Warsaw, Poland
Lina Nunes, LNEC, National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Structures Department,
Lisbon, Portugal
Tamara Nunes de Lima-Camara, Laboratório de Entomologia em Saúde Pública/
Culicídeos, Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saúde Pública da USP,
Avenida Doutor Arnaldo, 715, Cerqueira César, São Paulo, Brazil, CEP 01246-904.
E-mail: [email protected]
Roberto M. Pereira, Department of Entomology and Nematology, UF/IFAS Extension,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Mohamed F. Sallam, Department of Entomology and Nematology, UF/IFAS Extension,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA and Department of Entomology,
College of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt. E-mail: mdsallam@ufl.
edu
Steven R. Sims, Blue Imago LLC, 1973 Rule Ave, Maryland Heights, Missouri 63043, USA.
E-mail: [email protected]
Poonam Singh, National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Sector-8, Dwarka, Delhi-
110077, India. E-mail: [email protected]
Nan-Yao Su, Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Marta Supergan-Marwicz, Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical
University of Warsaw, Zwirki and Wigury 61, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland
Pawel Swietoslawski, ICB Pharma, ul. Mozdzierzowcow 6a, Jaworzno, Poland
 Acknowledgements

I am thankful to all individual contributors for their immensely valuable insights. I would
like to thank my parents for their continued inspiration, which helped me complete this
book. I also acknowledge my special appreciation to the publisher, CAB International, for
their acceptance of this book for publication.
Partho Dhang
15 April 2016
Manila, Philippines

ix
This page intentionally left blank
 1 Climate Change Effects on Urban
Pest Insects

Richard F. Comont*
Bumblebee Conservation Trust, Centre for Ecology & Hydrology
Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK

1.1 Introduction v­ aries, the British climate is expected to

change to hotter, drier summers and milder,
In recent decades, climate change has become wetter winters than currently occur (Murphy
a major issue worldwide. During the last cen- et al., 2009).
tury, the global temperature has increased by Urbanization itself has been defined as
0.8°C as the atmospheric CO2 concentration the replacement of nature by culture
has risen from 280 to 370 ppm: this is (Rolston, 1994). More specifically, the urban
expected to double by 2100, with a concomi- environment is a complex of wholly or par-
tant temperature increase of 1.1–5.4°C tially anthropogenically influenced habitats
above the 1900 level (IPCC, 2007). This also created from natural areas, sometimes via
causes changes in existing weather patterns, the intermediate state of agricultural land
including increased frequency and magni- (Robinson, 2005). In the context of the
tude of droughts, floods and other extreme urban environment, ‘urban’ comprises not
weather events (Easterling et al., 2000; Gre- just the city centre, but also the surrounding
enough et al., 2001; IPCC, 2007; Pall et al., suburbs, urban greenspace, industrial areas,
2011). These changes are mainly attributed and the rural–urban fringe (Robinson,
to increased human exploitation of natural 2005). This is an increasing, and inevitable,
resources, especially fossil fuels (releasing phenomenon: in 1960, 60% of the global
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere), but population lived a rural or semi-rural exis-
also industrialization, deforestation and tence in villages and small towns, but by
urbanization affecting the character of the 2030 it is predicted that 60% of the world’s
landscape (IPCC, 2007). Within the UK, the people will live in metropolitan areas, and
Central England Temperature record shows a the quality of life for future generations will
c.1°C rise since the 1970s (Tubby and Web- be inexorably linked to the urban environ-
ber, 2010). Future changes are difficult to ment (Robinson, 2005).
predict reliably, as they depend upon changes This environment is very different to
within human society, but the UK Climate the original natural environment, with
Impacts Programme (UKCIP) project (Mur- many habitats and their associated assem-
phy et al., 2009) illustrates both ‘high’ and blages destroyed during the building pro-
‘low’ emissions scenarios based on an ongo- cess, but even dense modern conurbations
ing high dependence on fossil fuels or a rapid contain a wide range of habitats suitable for
uptake of sustainable policies and technolo- wildlife, across a range of soil types, above-
gies, ­respectively. While the degree of change and below-ground areas, disturbed and

*E-mail: [email protected]
 CAB International 2017. Climate Change Impacts on Urban Pests
(ed. P. Dhang) 1
2 R.F. Comont

undisturbed regions. These may have been Urban environments generally impov-
created intentionally for wildlife, such as erish biodiversity, and the original wildlife
areas of wildlife-friendly gardening in parks of the natural area can be removed entirely
or private gardens; they may be highly (Robinson, 2005). However, for some spe-
altered versions, or equivalents, of the origi- cies with particular traits (Table 1.1), urban-
nal natural environment, for instance, cana- ization can hugely increase both the area of
lized rivers and street trees; or they may occupancy and the extent of occurrence at a
be entirely human-created and human-­ local or global scale. This can happen either
oriented habitats which are nevertheless directly, by providing a thermal niche which
suitable for colonization, such as food stores, would otherwise not be present, e.g. species
landfill sites, or even roadside puddles which are synanthropic at high latitudes but
(Davis, 1976; Gemmel and Connell, 1984; which are found in the wild in more tropical
Robinson, 2005; Jones and Leather, 2013). regions, such as the leaf-mining fly Liriomyza
It is this last category where colonizers huidobrensis (Blanchard) (IPPC, 2009); or
are particularly likely to have reputations as indirectly, by providing large quantities of
‘pests’. Pests have been defined as ‘a plant or food, for example, Anthrenus verbasci (L.) or
animal detrimental to humans or human Plodia interpunctella (Hübner), attacking
concerns’ (Merriam-Webster, 2015) or even, dried organic material inside buildings.
more broadly, as ‘a competitor of humanity’ These latter species are likely to be found in
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2015), but per- the wild in the same geographic area.
haps the best definition, following the well- The processes driving these colonizers
known definition of a weed as ‘a plant in the to reach pest proportions, however these are
wrong place’, is ‘an animal in the wrong defined, work at several spatial scales. At the
place’. extremely local scale, provision of breeding
Pest status overall is generally associ- habitat or attractants is important; for
ated with an economic loss, a potential med- instance, mosquitoes will breed in ephem-
ical threat, or a persistent nuisance. Pest eral pools, e.g. inside discarded vehicle tyres,
status specifically in the agricultural ecosys- or wasps will nest in sheltered spaces such as
tem, and the development and deployment sheds. But these are linked to landscape-
of control measures, is based largely on eco- scale factors (for instance, river floodplain
nomics and the financial value of crops lost management or wetland draining), and in
to the potential pest species. While the turn to regional or even global factors
financial or human cost of some types of such as species’ distributional changes in
pest can be assessed in urban areas (human- response to climate change. There is consid-
or pet-disease vectoring, structural damage erable interlinkage between the scales, and
to buildings, etc.), control decisions are at effects can be chaotic and difficult to predict:
least as likely to be based on the emotional for instance, malaria is thought to be indig-
response to the presence of a species. The enous to Britain, particularly in the Kent
extensively human-created nature of much marshes (Dobson, 1989), but local- and
of the urban environment – particularly landscape-scale changes such as marsh
indoors – means that animals are perhaps drainage and improvements in housing are
more likely to become pests than in the nat- thought to have eradicated it, although
ural or agricultural environments, as the many mosquito species able to carry the
density of humans, and their increasing dis- plasmodium remain (Vaile and Miles, 1980;
connection from nature, means that the tol- Dobson, 1989; Chin and Welsby, 2004). It is
erance threshold for wildlife may be as low now thought that, as south-east Britain
as one individual. These are likely to be warms by 2–3.5°C under the effects of global
regarded as non-statutory nuisances – climate change, malaria may return to the
annoyances, perhaps – and generally a level country (Chin and Welsby, 2004). There is a
of detriment necessary for a species to be 16°C lower limit to plasmodium develop-
called a true pest requires an abundance ment which generates a clear isotherm of
which most species never reach. threat, which will move northwards as the
 Climate Change Effects on Urban Pest Insects 3

Table 1.1. Traits exhibited by the archetypal pest insect species.

Trait Definition and reason

Synanthropy A life-history strategy which brings the species into constant/repetitive contact with
humans, either directly, e.g. blood-feeding parasites, or indirectly as a result of other
life-history strategy parameters
Overwintering A relatively low thermal minimum, allowing a good level of survival during outdoor
ability overwintering, in turn allowing a population reservoir to build up, which is capable of
infesting buildings. Organisms may not need this capability if they can instead
overwinter on an alternative host (parasitic species) or indoors.
Resilience Resilient populations capable of surviving unfavourable conditions, e.g. cold, application
of pesticides, lack of food, etc. This can be either the result of a resistant life stage (e.g.
flea pupae, which, until triggered by specific mechanical or chemical stimuli, can remain
dormant for several months), or by having a large amount of redundancy built into the
population structure (e.g. the potential for parthenogenesis in cockroaches, or the
polygynous, ephemeral-nesting nature of several tramp ant species).
Diet A generalist diet, particularly on human-created detritus, or alternatively a need to feed
on humans, or on items precious to humans.
r-selection A short generation time and high reproductive potential, allowing the species to take
advantage of favourable conditions, particularly indoors, by producing large numbers of
offspring quickly.
Anthropogenic A high anthropogenic dispersive potential, giving the species a good chance of being
dispersal transported between human settlements at a large scale, and between individual
houses at a local scale.
Natural A relatively low natural dispersal tendency. Species with a high natural dispersive ability
dispersal will tend not to aggregate to nuisance numbers, but those with a low ability to disperse
and a high reproductive potential will reach nuisance levels in a small area relatively
quickly, while still allowing some element of dispersal, minimizing the chances of the
entire population being eradicated.

climate warms, but the predicted changes in frequent storms and increased rainfall)
rainfall (up to 30% more during the winters, (IPCC, 2007), are predicted to impact on
but up to 50% less during the summers) are insect population dynamics. It has been rec-
likely to affect distribution and development ognized for many years that climate affects
of the vector species in a less predictable way biochemical, physiological and behavioural
(Chin and Welsby, 2004). processes in insects (Thomas and Blanford,
Insects are poikilothermic, and as such, 2003). Even modest changes to the climate
temperature is generally the single most are expected to have a rapid impact on the
important environmental factor governing distribution and abundance of pest insects
distribution, behaviour, survival, reproduc- because of their physiological sensitivity to
tion and development (Stewart and Dixon, temperature, short life cycles, high mobility
1989; Yamamura and Kiritani, 1998; Bale and high reproductive potential (Ayres and
et al., 2002; Dixon et al., 2009). Other envi- Lombardero, 2000; Roy et al., 2009a). Many
ronmental factors, and species traits and non-pest insects are already responding rap-
interactions, play roles which can be signifi- idly to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe,
cant, but these generally affect the realized 2003) and expanding northwards (Asher
niche within the fundamental niche of et al., 2001; Hickling et al., 2006). Milder
­climate suitability (Roy et al., 2009b; Jarošík and shorter winters will lengthen the breed-
et al., 2015). The increased temperatures ing period of some insects.
associated with climate change, ­coupled Several key traits are likely to govern
with anticipated extreme weather condi- the sensitivity of insect pests to climate
tions (more and longer droughts, more change: these are outlined below.
4 R.F. Comont

•• Persistence outside housing: The higher Existing synanthropic species such as cock-
the proportion of a species’ life cycle roaches may become able to survive outside,
spent outside, the more likely it is that increasing the potential to spread without
the species will be impacted by climate being transported by humans: though this
change. Species which have a dispersive may also mean that these species become
phase outside buildings (e.g. clothes less dependent on domestic areas. In Swe-
moths) are more likely to be impacted den, the scale insect Pulvinaria floccifera
by climate changes than species which (Westwood), traditionally a pest within
live entirely inside houses and greenhouses, has recently become estab-
premises. lished outside (Gertsson, 2005). This is in
•• Overwintering ability: In temperate line with the rapid spread of previously
regions such as the UK, species which ­thermally limited (albeit non-synanthropic)
overwinter outside and which have a species such as Roesel’s bush-cricket (Metri-
relatively low thermal minimum are optera roeselii (Hagenbach)) across the UK
more likely to increase in abundance as (Gardiner, 2009). Wholly synanthropic spe-
the climate warms. Species which do not cies which can only survive in the human-
diapause, where adults are produced and inhabited environment are vulnerable to
are active year-round, may be most likely control measures, and warming which allows
to benefit from warmer environments. them to persist in the urban environment
•• r-selection: Provided that the species but outside dwellings is likely to increase
persists in the wider environment, short their pest status: for instance, the American
generation times and a high reproduc- cockroach (Periplaneta americana (L.)), which
tive potential are likely to allow the spe- re-infests buildings from a network of reser-
cies to take advantage of increasingly voir populations in sewage pipes (Robinson,
warm conditions by producing large 2005).
numbers of offspring quickly. A similar, though less dramatic, degree
•• Breeding sites: Species which breed out- of change in the reaction to increased tem-
side are more likely to be impacted by peratures could allow species currently
climate change than species which occurring in the area at low, non-pest levels
breed exclusively indoors. The species to greatly increase their abundance as they
which have aquatic or semi-aquatic cease to be limited by temperature (directly,
breeding sites are likely to be negatively e.g. increased survival and fecundity, or indi-
impacted by predicted summer rectly, e.g. where dependent on a tempera-
droughts, and benefit from increased ture-limited food species) and achieve pest
winter precipitation and flooding proportions. In the Czech Republic, the
events. European corn-borer, Ostrinia nubialis Hub-
•• Resource specialism: Species which are ner, is likely to become bivoltine under the
highly specialized in resource use (e.g. warming conditions expected over the
diet, hosts or habitat use) are less likely period 2025–2050, and thus pose a greater
to increase due to climate change than threat to crops (Trnka et al., 2007).
generalists, as the preferred host/prey Urban areas are already known to be
must also increase with climate change. warmer than surrounding countryside, a
•• Dispersal: Species which are dispersed phenomenon known as the urban heat
by humans or on hosts which undergo island effect, produced from the cumulative
human-mediated transport may be bet- effect of increased heat from vehicles and
ter able to take advantage of climate machines, heat retention from man-made
change-induced increases in habitat surfaces, the windbreak effect of buildings
availability than species that undergo reducing heat dissipation, and reduced evap-
active dispersal. orative cooling (Oke, 1973). This means that
they are likely to reach developmental
This opens up several similar ways in which threshold temperatures first and allow spe-
the pest burden in an area may change. cies or behaviours which will only gradually
 Climate Change Effects on Urban Pest Insects 5

be seen outside of urban areas. For instance, aphids across Europe to be recorded 8 days
the buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris earlier in the year as a result of increased
(L.)) is now winter-active across many Brit- temperatures, but species traits, including
ish cities, at least partially because of cli- food-plant and life-cycle type, had major
matic effects (Stelzer et al., 2010; Owen effects on the changes (Harrington et al.,
et al., 2013; Holland and Bourke, 2015). 2007; Bell et al., 2015).
A variant of the same process could see
new species arrive and establish where pre-
viously they have been thermally limited or 1.2 Non-native Species
excluded, either from warmer areas of the
same country or species which are currently The Convention on Biological Diversity
non-native, arriving either naturally or via (CBD: http://www.cbd.int) defines non-
human-mediated dispersal. The scarce bor- native species as ‘a species, subspecies or
dered straw, Helicoverpa armigera Hübner, is lower taxon, introduced outside its natural
native to the Mediterranean, tropics and past or present distribution; includes any
sub-tropics, but has spread naturally north- part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of
wards with climate change, including a such species that might survive and subse-
‘­phenomenal’ increase in Britain during quently reproduce’ (CBD, 2002) (COP 6,
1969–2007 (Parsons and Davey, 2007), and decision VI/23). The term has many syn-
has been recorded as a pest outdoors in Ger- onyms in the literature, including alien,
many (FAO, 2008). The scale insect, Icerya introduced, exotic, foreign and non-indige-
purchasi Maskell, has spread naturally north- nous. The use of the term ‘introduced’ in the
wards with climate change, but is also definition is important, as it makes explicit
spreading from introduction points well in the fact that a species can only be called non-
advance of the natural spread, including out- native if it has arrived via human-mediated
breaks in Paris and London (Watson and dispersal, or natural spread from a human-
Malumphy, 2004; Smith et al., 2007). mediated introduction: simply benefiting
Other climatic changes can have effects from human-mediated environmental
as well. The plant and human health pest changes, such as the establishment of suit-
Thaumetopoea processionea L. is thought to able habitat or an increase in temperature
be spreading northwards partially as a result from climate change in order to arrive natu-
of a reduction in late frosts, while a major rally, simply makes the species a new native.
factor in the northwards spread of the There is little disagreement that, as species
mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus pondero- continue to move northwards with climate
sae Hopkins, in the Pacific Northwest USA is change, more species are likely to arrive and
increased drought stress on the food plant establish in temperate areas such as the UK,
trees (FAO, 2008). but there is considerable disagreement over
Lastly, and most difficult to predict, which species these will be, and the effects
human behavioural and engineering changes each of them is likely to have (Walther et al.,
in response to the changing climate may cre- 2002, 2009; Parmesan, 2006; Blackburn and
ate new colonizable niches, or destroy exist- Jeschke, 2009; Blackburn et al., 2009, 2015;
ing ones. The UK has been predicted to have Roy et al., 2014).
warmer, drier summers, potentially leading Only a small subset of the non-native
to more people-hours spent outside during species introduced to a new area will actually
summer evenings and a greater susceptibil- become established, and a yet smaller subset
ity to vector or nuisance-biting mosquito of these will go on to become invasive
species (Chin and Welsby, 2004), but water (Lodge, 1993). This is often referred to as
shortages exacerbated by decreased summer the ‘tens rule’, whereby one species estab-
rainfall (Thomsen, 1993) may limit the avail- lishes from every ten introduced, and of
ability of water for these mosquitoes to every ten established species, one will
breed, in turn reducing the risk. In European become invasive, although the exact propor-
aphid species, climatic models predicted tions are often variable (Williamson, 1996;
6 R.F. Comont

Vander Zanden, 2005). For a species to non-natives. Most analyses have focused on
become a pest, it must generally become the biodiversity impacts of non-native spe-
invasive: indeed, the legal definition of an cies (Evans et al., 2011; Roy et al., 2012a;
invasive species in the USA is ‘an alien spe- Comont et al., 2013), but for a species to
cies whose introduction does or is likely to become known as a pest, the biodiversity
cause environmental or economic harm or impacts are generally less important than
harm to human health’ (EO, 1999). Climate when considered from an ecological point of
suitability is just one of many factors influ- view. To be known as a pest, a species (native
encing the arrival, establishment and spread or non-native) is generally a threat in at least
of non-native invertebrates (Smith et al., one of three main ways: threats, or apparent
2007), and very few non-native species are threats, to health of humans or domestic
likely to arrive and arise as pests solely animals; structural or aesthetic damage to
because of climate change, at least in the property or amenity plantings; and nuisance
near future. impacts.
Far more likely is a scenario whereby a
species which is currently adventive or a
casual non-spreading introduction is able to 1.3 Medical Threats
establish and spread out (Hardwick et al.,
1996; Thuiller et al., 2006; Callaway et al., Species can be medical pests in two main
2012). Bio-climate models have been used ways: causing direct harm, e.g. by biting, or
to estimate the potential UK distribution by inducing illness, mainly by vectoring dis-
of insects (Baker et al., 1996; Gevrey and eases. Most insect orders contain species
Worner, 2006; Poutsma et al., 2008; Comont which at least have potential to be pests but
et al., 2013; Purse et al., 2014), marine crus- perhaps the most significant are Diptera
taceans (Gallardo et al., 2012) and many oth- (particularly the disease-vectoring mosqui-
ers: without fail, these analyses find that toes) and Hymenoptera (stinging and biting
species are likely to at least increase the area bees, wasps and ants). Very few medically
of their fundamental niche, even if their important pest species are entirely synan-
actual realized niche remains constrained by thropic (the most frequently encountered of
local factors. these are probably head lice, Pediculus huma-
There is no shortage of potential organ- nus capitis (de Geer), and bed bugs, Cimex
isms: a recent systematic assessment of lectularius L.): the majority are peridomes-
non-native species established within Great tic, living and breeding in semi-natural areas
Britain found there were at least 3758 non- and other urban habitats outside dwellings
native species in the country, although (Robinson, 2005). None of these is exclu-
around one-third of those were somewhat sively urban in distribution: indeed, many
ambiguous and status could not be allocated occur more widely in rural environments,
with complete confidence (Roy et al., 2012b). but their importance as pests is exacerbated
Established non-native species numbered by their proximity to people in urban areas.
1795, and although the vast majority of Largely synanthropic species, such as
these are plants (74%), some 269 insect spe- bed bugs, and human-parasitic species, such
cies fall within that category and could as head lice, or pubic lice, Pthirus pubis L., are
potentially be in the lag phase of an unlikely to experience major, if any, changes
invasion. in population size or areal extent from cli-
The report lists 282 non-native species mate change, unless they drive a major
as currently invasive in Great Britain (Roy change in human behaviour. It has been pos-
et al., 2012b), and these are estimated to ited that a behavioural change (increased
have a direct cost of £1.7 billion per year levels of pubic hair removal) may be reduc-
(Williams et al., 2010). As this cost is largely ing the area of habitat available for the pubic
related to control measures (Williams et al., louse, with a corresponding drop in abun-
2010), an increase in pest species could see a dance of the species (Armstrong and Wilson,
considerable rise in the financial burden of 2006), but more recent papers dispute both
 Climate Change Effects on Urban Pest Insects 7

the existence of an excessive level of hair (in North America) Ae. dorsalis (Meigen), Ae.
removal (Tiggemann and Hodgson, 2008; vexans (Meigen), Ae. squamiger (Coquillett),
Herbenick et al., 2010) and the decreased Ae. sollicitans (Walker), and Ae. taeniorhyn-
incidence of lice infestation (Dholakia et al., chus (Wiedemann), develop and breed in
2014), which appears to be steady at around saltmarshes and floodplains, but have flight
2% (Uribe-Salas et al., 1996; Anderson and ranges of 6.4–64 km, enough to forage
Chaney, 2009). As the time period covered within huge areas of nearby cities (Robin-
by these studies was the hottest decade yet son, 2005). As sea-level rise is a predicted
recorded (Hansen et al., 2010), some pattern major outcome of climate change (IPCC,
would probably be becoming evident if 2007), abundance and areas of occupancy of
­considerable change was likely in the fore- these and similar species are likely to change
seeable future. significantly, although the direction of this
Worldwide, the major groups of disease- change will result, at least in part, from
vectoring arthropods in the urban environ- human decisions on defending the coastline.
ment are mosquitoes, ticks and assassin Hard defences such as sea walls are likely to
bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) (Robinson, be used in some areas, and the rising sea lev-
2005). In particular, several species of Culex, els are predicted to wash away mudflats and
Aedes and Anopheles mosquitoes occur marshes in front of the walls, removing the
widely in urban environments, sometimes mosquito’s breeding areas, but the prohibi-
at high abundance, and are drawn to lights, tive cost means that soft management poli-
carbon dioxide, and olfactory plumes given cies, such as managed retreat, are likely to be
off by mammals, including humans. Many of commonly employed (Nicholls et al., 1995;
these species ancestrally breed in tree holes Galbraith et al., 2002). The policy of man-
and have switched easily to utilizing the aged retreat is likely to result in a net
plethora of ephemeral pools found in urban increase of saltmarsh suitable for breeding,
areas. The worldwide spread of species such but existing areas may well be lost (Pethick,
as the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus 1993, 2001; King and Lester, 1995), making
(Skuse), demonstrates the potential for future impacts difficult to predict.
human-aided dispersal and introduction, Other species, such as Culex tritaenio-
and forthcoming climate change is predicted rhynchus and Culex tarsalis, vectors for the
to allow establishment at higher latitudes Japanese and Western equine encephalitis
than is currently possible for the species viruses respectively, are floodwater species
(Roy et al., 2009a). Both species have desic- and thus may increase in abundance in
cation-resistant eggs, which allow them to the urban environment during and after
survive long-distance travel to new areas, ­flooding events, which are predicted to
and an ability to breed in small containers, increase with climate change (Easterling
particularly old vehicle tyres, which has et al., 2000; Greenough et al., 2001; Pall
allowed the species to establish worldwide in et al., 2011).
warm climates (Hawley, 1988; Romi et al., The effects of peri-domestic species
2006). As this species is a major vector of such as these, which are mainly (but not
arboviruses, including dengue fever (Haw- entirely) pests outside, are also likely to be
ley, 1988; Gratz, 2004; Messina et al., 2015), mitigated by human behaviours (some of
and other pathogens and parasites (Cancrini which are likely to change in response to cli-
et al., 2003; Nunes et al., 2015), climate mate change). In urban areas of Japan, a
change is likely to be the root cause of major decrease in Japanese encephalitis has been
public-health threats and potential regional attributed to a behavioural shift away from
epidemics. being outdoors in the evening, and towards
Several other species are not as well staying indoors in air-conditioned houses
adapted to living within urban areas, but watching the television (Robinson, 2005).
have dispersal ranges long enough to allow Insects can cause a severe reaction with-
them to breed outside cities and feed within out vectoring a disease, however. Allergic
them. Several other Aedes species, including disease is common, affecting around 40% of
8 R.F. Comont

the world’s population, and while most aller- be more fecund in warmer areas and are
gies cause minor reactions such as head- likely to increase in abundance in such areas
aches, itching and rashes, some are severe, (Dale and Frank, 2014b), there is likely to be
from difficulty breathing up to anaphylaxis a multiplicative effect on the plantings with
requiring immediate hospitalization (Reis- climate change, resulting in a poor outlook
man, 1992; Van der Linden et al., 1994; Rob- for the urban forest.
inson, 2005; Demain et al., 2010). A wide In the UK, section 79(1) (fa) of the Envi-
range of insects can induce allergic reac- ronmental Protection Act 1990 (as amended)
tions, either by their presence alone (e.g. states that ‘any insects emanating from rel-
cockroaches, fleas, etc.) or by stinging to evant industrial, trade or business premises
defend themselves (bees, ants and wasps) and being prejudicial to health or a nuisance’
(Robinson, 2005; Roy et al., 2009a). As cli- shall constitute a statutory nuisance and
mate change is predicted to increase insect thus be subject to controls. This wording
numbers, the encounter probability is likely indicates the two-limbed structure of legal
to rise, although this should be balanced nuisance: insects do not need to spread dis-
against the ongoing decline in abundance ease or provoke an allergic reaction to act as
and distribution for many species (Conrad pests. Often, the mere presence of insects
et al., 2006; Potts et al., 2010; Roy et al., within dwellings is enough to provoke a
2012a; Lebuhn et al., 2013). response (particularly those species seen as
dirty or threatening in some way), and
numerous papers report the increase in
1.4 Nuisance Pests prevalence of nuisance insects (Brenner
et al., 2003). For example, cockroaches are
The pest status of many species in urban one of the most common pests found in
areas, however, is based solely on an intoler- apartments, homes, food handling estab-
ance of the presence of species other than lishments, hospitals and health care facili-
humans and companion animals within a ties worldwide (Bonnefoy et al., 2008). Many
living space, home or garden. The presence people find cockroaches objectionable; in a
of ‘unauthorized’ insects is considered unac- London study, 80% of residents from unin-
ceptable, and control is based on an emo- fested apartments felt that cockroach infes-
tional or aesthetic threshold rather than a tations were worse than poor security,
financial or cost–benefit-based analysis. dampness, poor heating and poor repair
Inside houses, the pests most commonly (Majekodunmi et al., 2002), while 90% of
controlled at a low density are cockroaches pesticides (which can themselves have
(Insecta: Blattodea), silverfish (Lepisma sac- human health effects) applied in apartments
charina L.), moth flies (Diptera: Psychodi- in the United States are directed at cock-
dae), and carpet beetles (Coleoptera: roaches (Whyatt et al., 2002).
Anthrenus spp.) (Robinson, 2005). When abundant or long-lasting, insects
The aesthetic threshold for control can themselves constitute a nuisance in law,
extends beyond the indoor environment. though this depends on the circumstances
Gardens and municipal plantings, such as and the effects that the insects have on peo-
roadside amenity trees in urban environ- ple or property. Nuisance has been defined
ments, frequently suffer from pests which as ‘a condition or activity which unduly
affect the appearance but do little to no real interferes with the use or enjoyment of land’
harm to the host (Raupp et al., 2010; Zve- (Dugdale and Jones, 2006: Paragraph
reva et al., 2010; Dale and Frank, 2014a). It 20-01), so, allowing insects to remain or
has been found that urban trees grow cause an infestation may (in severe cases)
quicker in warmer areas, but are also more comprise a legal nuisance. Generally, this is a
water-stressed, which leaves them more vul- private nuisance and a tort, or civil wrong
nerable to pests (Coffelt and Schultz, 1993; (interfering with the right of property own-
Tubby and Webber, 2010; Dale and Frank, ers to use it free from unreasonable interfer-
2014a). As pest insects have been found to ences from neighbouring property), but
 Climate Change Effects on Urban Pest Insects 9

when the effect is widespread it may com- (particularly in relation to the source and
prise a public nuisance, defined by Lord Jus- abundance of the insects).
tice Denning as a nuisance which is:
so widespread in its range or so indiscrimi-
nate in its effect that it would not be 1.5 Conclusions
reasonable to expect one person to take
proceedings on his own responsibility to Climate change is happening. Human behav-
put a stop to it, but that it should be taken iour may minimize the extent of changes,
on the responsibility of the community at but it is too late to avoid the effects entirely;
large (EWCA, 1957). indeed, they are already being felt. These
ongoing changes to climate are likely, at
This means that if a class or group of people least in temperate areas, to increase the
suffers to an unreasonable extent from abundance and diversity of pest species,
insects emanating from a person’s land, especially those with some element of their
then a prosecution could be brought either life cycle outside. The impacts of the pest
by the local authority or by a private indi- species are likely to scale with abundance
vidual against the person responsible. As and diversity, and new pests are likely to
with private nuisance, an injunction could arise as a result of introductions or better
be sought to prevent recurrence of the nui- adaptations to the new climate regime.
sance in the High Court or the County Court With urban areas, changes to the built
(Roy et al., 2009a). environment and to human behaviour
Nuisance insects can emanate from a (including adaptations to the changing cli-
wide range of sources, but it is expected that mate) will affect the impacts of pest species
most complaints of insect nuisance will be in ways that are hard to predict. A further
from the following sources: poultry and level of complexity is added by the potential
other animal houses; buildings on agricul- for multi-species interactions: pest species
tural land including manure and silage stor- do not live in isolation, but interact with,
age areas; sewage treatment works; stagnant and are affected by, a multitude of other spe-
ditches and drains; landfill sites and refuse cies, including parasites, predators and
tips; waste transfer premises; commercial, pathogens, which will themselves be affected
trade or business premises; slaughterhouses; by the changing environment.
and used car tyre recycling businesses. Such
areas (except for commercial, trade and busi-
ness premises) are rare in city centres, and it
References
is likely that most cases of purely nuisance
insect infestation will be around the edges
Anderson, A.L. and Chaney, E. (2009) Pubic lice
of urban areas, where these businesses are (Pthirus pubis): history, biology and treatment
close to residential areas. As with other vs. knowledge and beliefs of US college stu-
groups of outdoor-breeding insects, the dents. International Journal of Environmental
increased temperatures from climate change Research and Public Health 6, 592–600.
are likely to decrease the generation time Armstrong, N.R. and Wilson, J.D. (2006) Did the
and increase the abundance, potentially ‘Brazilian’ kill the pubic louse? Sexually Trans-
increasing the severity of a current minor mitted Infections 82, 265–266.
nuisance, or creating a nuisance at a greater Asher, J., Warren, M.S., Fox, R., Harding, P., Jef-
distance from the source. fcoate, G. and Jeffcoate, S. (2001) The Millen-
nium Atlas of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland.
Most nuisances from insect pests are
Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
not severe or wide-ranging enough to be Ayres, M.P. and Lombardero, M.J. (2000) Assess-
classed as statutory nuisances. The distinc- ing the consequences of global change for for-
tion between statutory nuisance and non- est disturbance from herbivores and pathogens.
statutory nuisance will vary on a case-by-case Science of the Total Environment 262, 263–286.
basis; an insect will be a statutory nuisance Baker, R.H.A., Cannon, R.J.C. and Walters, K.F.A.
in some scenarios but not others (1996) An assessment of the risks posed by
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