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This page intentionally left blank
 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
IN ESTUARINE PHYSICS

Estuaries are areas of high socioeconomic importance, with 22 of the 32 largest

cities in the world being located on river estuaries. Estuaries bring together fluxes of
fresh and saline water, as well as fluvial and marine sediments, and contain many
biological niches and high biological diversity. Increasing sophistication of field
observation technology and numerical modeling have led to significant advances in
our understanding of the physics of these systems over the last decade.
This book introduces a classification for estuaries before presenting the basic
physics and hydrodynamics of estuarine circulation and the various factors that
modify it in time and space. It then covers special topics at the forefront of research,
such as turbulence, fronts in estuaries and continental shelves, low inflow estuaries,
and implications of estuarine transport for water quality.
With contributions from some of the world’s leading authorities on estuarine and
lagoon hydrodynamics, this volume provides a concise foundation for academic
researchers, advanced students and coastal resource managers.

Arnoldo Valle-Levinson received a PhD from the State University of New York at
Stony Brook in 1992 before going on to work at Old Dominion University (Norfolk,
VA). He joined the University of Florida (Gainsville, FL) in 2005, where he is now a
Professor in the Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering. His research focuses
on bathymetric effects on the hydrodynamics of estuaries, fjords and coastal
lagoons. Professor Valle-Levinson is the recipient of a CAREER award from the
US National Science Foundation, a Fulbright Fellowship for research in Chile, and a
Gledden Fellowship from the University of Western Australia. He has worked
extensively in several Latin-American countries, where he also teaches courses on
estuarine and coastal hydrodynamics. He is also an associate editor for the journals
Continental Shelf Research and Ciencias Marinas.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN
ESTUARINE PHYSICS

Edited by

A. VALLE-LEVINSON
University of Florida
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521899673
© Cambridge University Press 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2010

ISBN-13 978-0-511-67776-2 eBook (NetLibrary)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-89967-3 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

List of contributors page vi

Preface ix
1. Definition and classification of estuaries 1
A. Valle-Levinson
2. Estuarine salinity structure and circulation 12
W. R. Geyer
3. Barotropic tides in channelized estuaries 27
C. T. Friedrichs
4. Estuarine variability 62
D. A. Jay
5. Estuarine secondary circulation 100
R. J. Chant
6. Wind and tidally driven flows in a semienclosed basin 125
C. Winant
7. Mixing in estuaries 145
S. G. Monismith
8. The dynamics of estuary plumes and fronts 186
J. O’Donnell
9. Low-inflow estuaries: hypersaline, inverse, and thermal scenarios 247
J. Largier
10. Implications of estuarine transport for water quality 273
L. V. Lucas
Index 308

v
 List of contributors

Robert J. Chant
IMCS Rutgers University
71 Dudley Road
New Brunswick, NJ 08901
USA
Carl T. Friedrichs
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
P.O. Box 1346
Gloucester Point, VA 23062-1346
USA
W. Rockwell Geyer
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Applied Ocean Physics and Engineering
98 Water Street
Mail Stop 12
Woods Hole, MA 02543
USA
David A. Jay
Portland State University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
P.O. Box 751
Portland, OR 97207-0751
USA
John Largier
Bodega Marine Lab
University of California, Davis

vi
 List of contributors vii

P.O. Box 247

Bodega Bay, CA 94923
USA
Lisa V. Lucas
US Geological Survey
345 Middlefield Road, MS #496
Menlo Park, CA 94025
USA
Stephen G. Monismith
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305-4020
USA
James O’Donnell
University of Connecticut
1084 Shennecossett Road
Groton, CT 06340
USA
Arnoldo Valle-Levinson
Department of Civil and Coastal Engineering
University of Florida
365 Weil Hall, P.O. Box 116580
Gainesville, FL 32611
USA
Clint Winant
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD
9500 Gilman Drive
La Jolla, CA 92093-0209
USA
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 Preface

This book resulted from the lectures of a PanAmerican Advanced Studies Institute
(PASI) funded by the United States National Science Foundation and the Department
of Energy. The topic of the PASI was “Contemporary Issues in Estuarine Physics,
Transport and Water Quality” and was held from July 31 to August 13, 2007 at the
Unidad Académica Puerto Morelos of the Mexican National University (UNAM).
One of the requirements was that the PASI had to involve lecturers and students from
the Americas, with most from the United States. The institute was restricted to
advanced graduate students and postdoctoral participants. Because of the require-
ments, this book includes authors who work in the United States but tries to be
comprehensive in including aspects of estuarine systems in different parts of the
world. The book, however, reflects regional experiences of the authors and obviously
does not include exhaustive illustrations throughout the world. Nonetheless, it is
expected to motivate studies, in diverse regions, that address problems outlined
herein.
This book should be appropriate for advanced undergraduate or graduate courses
on estuarine and lagoon hydrodynamics. It should also serve as a reference for the
professional or environmental manager in this field. The sequence of chapters is
designed in such a way that the topic is introduced in terms of estuaries classification
(Chapter 1). This is followed by the basic hydrodynamics that drive the typically
conceived estuarine circulation consisting of fresher water moving near the surface
toward the ocean and saltier water moving below in opposite direction (Chapter 2).
This chapter also presents the implications of estuarine circulation on salinity
stratification. The chapter sequence then deals with processes that modify the
basic circulation pattern, such as tides. The theoretical framework for tides in
different systems is treated in Chapter 3. The effect of tides on estuarine circulation
is presented at intratidal and subtidal time scales in Chapter 4. Chapters 5 and 6 deal
with effects of bathymetry on estuarine hydrodynamics. The effects of lateral
bathymetry and lateral circulation on estuarine circulation are explored in

ix
x Preface

Chapter 5. Chapter 6 depicts the circulation driven by tides and winds under varying
bathymetry, to compare with the results of Chapter 3 for tides. The rest of the
chapters deal with selected topics related to estuarine physics: turbulence is studied
in Chapter 7; fronts in estuaries and continental shelves are covered in Chapter 8;
processes in low-inflow estuaries are discussed in Chapter 9; and water quality
implications are presented in Chapter 10.
The effort of putting this book together was made possible by the interest and
dedication of the chapter authors, whose gathering at the PASI was supported by
funding from the United States National Science Foundation, under project IOISE-
0614418. Special recognition to David Salas de León and Adela Monreal, from the
National University of Mexico (UNAM), for their tremendous contributions and
original ideas in the organization of the PASI. Mario Cáceres, David Salas Monreal,
Gilberto Expósito and Miguel Angel Díaz were extremely helpful with the logistics
during the PASI. Particular gratitude to the Academic Unit of UNAM in Puerto
Morelos, Brigitta Van Tussembroek, Director of the Unit at the time of the PASI, for
allowing the use of their facilities for this activity.
 1
Definition and classification of estuaries
arnoldo valle-levinson
University of Florida

This chapter discusses definitions and classification of estuaries. It presents both

the classical and more flexible definitions of estuaries. Then it discusses separate
classifications of estuaries based on water balance, geomorphology, water column
stratification, and the stratification–circulation diagram – Hansen–Rattray approach
and the Ekman–Kelvin numbers parameter space.
The most widely accepted definition of an estuary was proposed by Cameron
and Pritchard (1963). According to their definition, an estuary is (a) a semien-
closed and coastal body of water, (b) with free communication to the ocean, and
(c) within which ocean water is diluted by freshwater derived from land.
Freshwater entering a semienclosed basin establishes longitudinal density gradi-
ents that result in long-term surface outflow and net inflow underneath. In classical
estuaries, freshwater input is the main driver of the long-term (order of months)
circulation through the addition of buoyancy. The above definition of an estuary
applies to temperate (classical) estuaries but is irrelevant for arid, tropical and
subtropical basins. Arid basins and those forced intermittently by freshwater
exhibit hydrodynamics that are consistent with those of classical estuaries and
yet have little or no freshwater influence. The loss of freshwater through evapo-
ration is the primary forcing agent in some arid systems, and causes the develop-
ment of longitudinal density gradients, in analogy to temperate estuaries. Most of
this book deals with temperate estuaries, but low-inflow estuaries are discussed
in detail in Chapter 9.

1.1. Classification of estuaries on the basis of water balance

On the basis of the definitions above, and in terms of their water balance, estuaries
can be classified as three types: positive, inverse and low-inflow estuaries
(Fig. 1.1). Positive estuaries are those in which freshwater additions from river
discharge, rain and ice melting exceed freshwater losses from evaporation or

1
2 Contemporary Issues in Estuarine Physics

Figure 1.1. Types of estuaries on the basis of water balance. Low-inflow estuaries
exhibit a “salt plug”.

freezing and establish a longitudinal density gradient. In positive estuaries, the

longitudinal density gradient drives a net volume outflow to the ocean, as denoted
by stronger surface outflow than near-bottom inflow, in response to the supple-
mentary freshwater. The circulation induced by the volume of fresh water added to
the basin is widely known as “estuarine” or “gravitational” circulation.
Inverse estuaries are typically found in arid regions where freshwater losses from
evaporation exceed freshwater additions from precipitation. There is no or scant
river discharge into these systems. They are called inverse, or negative, because
the longitudinal density gradient has the opposite sign to that in positive estuaries,
i.e., water density increases landward. Inverse estuaries exhibit net volume inflows
associated with stronger surface inflows than near-bottom outflows. Water losses
related to inverse estuaries make their flushing more sluggish than positive estu-
aries. Because of their relatively sluggish flushing, negative estuaries are likely
more prone to water quality problems than positive estuaries.
Low-inflow estuaries also occur in regions of high evaporation rates but with a
small (on the order of a few m3/s) influence from river discharge. During the dry and
hot season, evaporation processes may cause a salinity maximum zone (sometimes
 Definition and classification of estuaries 3

referred to as a salt plug, e.g., Wolanski, 1986) within these low-inflow estuaries.
Seaward of this salinity maximum, the water density decreases, as in an inverse
estuary. Landward of this salinity maximum, the water density decreases, as in
a positive estuary. Therefore, the zone of maximum salinity acts as a barrier that
precludes the seaward flushing of riverine waters and the landward intrusion of
ocean waters. Because of their weak flushing in the region landward of the salinity
maximum, low-inflow estuaries are also prone to water quality problems.

1.2. Classification of estuaries on the basis of geomorphology

Estuaries may be classified according to their geomorphology as coastal plain, fjord,
bar-built and tectonic (Fig. 1.2; Pritchard, 1952). Coastal plain estuaries, also called
drowned river valleys, are those that were formed as a result of the Pleistocene
increase in sea level, starting ~15,000 years ago. Originally rivers, these estuaries
formed during flooding over several millennia by rising sea levels. Their shape
resembles that of present-day rivers, although much wider. They are typically wide
(on the order of several kilometers) and shallow (on the order of 10 m), with large
width/depth aspect ratios. Examples of these systems are Chesapeake Bay and
Delaware Bay on the eastern coast of the United States.
Fjords are associated with high latitudes where glacial activity is intense. They
are characterized by an elongated, deep channel with a sill. The sill is related to

Figure 1.2. Classification of estuaries on the basis of geomorphology.

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