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Oliver Dickinson

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 THE AEGEAN FROM BRONZE AGE
TO IRON AGE

Following Oliver Dickinson’s successful The Aegean Bronze Age, The Aegean
from Bronze Age to Iron Age is an up-to-date synthesis of the period between
the collapse of the Bronze Age civilisation in the thirteenth and twelfth
centuries bc, and the great advances towards Greek civilisation in the eighth
century bc.
Breaking away from outmoded theories which give undue credit to Athens
for Greek development, Dickinson offers a fresh examination of the latest
material and archaeological evidence and forms the compelling argument
that many characteristics of Ancient Greece developed in the Dark Ages.
In accessible thematic chapters, this highly informative text considers the
structure and economy of the early Iron Age communities, their crafts, burial
customs, external contact, trade and religion, with a separate chapter on the
Postpalatial period, and comments on the relevance of Homer, revealing:

• the reasons for the Bronze Age collapse, bringing about the Dark Ages
• the processes that enabled Greece to emerge from the Dark Ages
• the degree of continuity from the Dark Ages to later times.

Including chapter bibliographies, distribution maps and new illustrations,

this book will prove to be essential reading for students and specialists alike,
as well as an illuminating read for the interested general reader. This is an
authoritative survey of the period from a leader in the field.

Dr Oliver Dickinson recently retired as Reader Emeritus from the Depart-

ment of Classics and Ancient History, University of Durham, where he
taught from 1976–2005. He is a specialist in Greek prehistory.
THE AEGEAN FROM
BRONZE AGE TO
IRON AGE
Continuity and change between the
twelfth and eighth centuries bc

Oliver Dickinson
 First published 2006
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2006 Oliver Dickinson
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN10: 0–415–13589–3 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0–415–13390–7 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0–203–96836–0 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–13589–4 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–13590–0 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–203–9683–9 (ebk)
Dedicated to the memory of Dorothea Gray and Vincent Desborough, my
mentors in Homeric and Early Iron Age archaeology; Mervyn Popham, who
encouraged me to study the Protogeometric material from Lefkandi; Bill
McDonald, who offered me the opportunity to participate in the excavations
at Nichoria; and Willy Coulson and Cindy Martin, valued colleagues at
Nichoria.
 CONTENTS

List of illustrations viii

Preface x
Acknowledgements xii
List of abbreviations xiv
Note on usage and nomenclature xvi

Introduction 1

1 Terminology and chronology 10

2 The collapse of the Bronze Age civilisation 24

3 The Postpalatial period 58

4 The structure and economy of communities 79

5 Crafts 114

6 Burial customs 174

7 Trade, exchange and foreign contacts 196

8 Religion 219

9 Conclusions 238

Glossary 259
Bibliography 261
Index 285

vii
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures
1.1 Terminological system, with relative and absolute
chronological phases 23
2.1 Significant Third Palace Period sites in the mainland and
nearest islands 26
2.2 Linear B tablet An 657, first of the o-ka series, from the
palace at Pylos 27
2.3 Plan of Dhimini palace 28
2.4 The international setting of the Aegean in the Third Palace
Period 31
2.5 Ivory inlay from the House of Sphinxes, Mycenae 32
3.1 Important Postpalatial sites and regions 59
3.2 Bronze vessel from Pylos 68
3.3 The Warrior Vase from the House of the Warrior Vase,
Mycenae 71
4.1 Distribution map of sites outside the southern mainland,
c. 1050–800 85
4.1a Distribution map of sites on the southern mainland,
c. 1050–800 86
4.2 Plan of EIA Athens 89
4.3 LM IIIC sites in Crete 91
4.4 Plan of Kavousi area settlement clusters 92
4.5 LH IIIC structures: (1) Lefkandi Phases 1 and 2, (2) Tiryns
House W 105
4.6 Plan of Karphi 106
4.7 Plan and reconstruction of the Lefkandi ‘Heroön’ 108
4.8 Plan and reconstruction of Nichoria Unit IV-1 109
5.1 Moulds for bronze tripod legs from Lefkandi 117
5.2 Gold earrings from Areopagus, Athens 119
5.3 Elaborate LH IIIC stirrup jars 123
5.4 LM IIIC Fringed Style pyxis from Kritsa 123
5.5 Typical LH IIIC vases 125

viii
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 L I S T O F I L L U S T R AT I O N S

5.6 Submycenaean and contemporary vases 126

5.7 North Aegean amphora decorated with compass-drawn
circles 130
5.8 Typical Attic LPG vases 133
5.9 EPG belly-handled amphora from Kerameikos, Athens 134
5.10 Typical Euboean PG and SPG vases 135
5.11 MPG krater from the Lefkandi ‘Heroön’ 136
5.12 Plate (LPG or SPG I) from Lefkandi 137
5.13 Typical Attic EG-MG I vases 138
5.14 Typical MG II-LG vases 139
5.15 MG I belly-handled amphora from Kerameikos, Athens 140
5.16 LG Ia grave-marker amphora NM 804 from the Dipylon
cemetery, Athens 141
5.17 Examples of other PG and SPG styles 143
5.18 Distribution map of iron items from pre-1000 contexts in
the Aegean 148
5.19 Bronze vessel types 151
5.20 Bronze figurine types 154
5.21 Weapon types 156
5.22 Early jewellery 160
5.23 LPG gold necklace from Lefkandi 168
5.24 Later jewellery 169
6.1 Plan of Perati cemetery 179
6.2 Plan of an Elateia Type B chamber tomb 182
6.3 Plan of Lefkandi: Skoubris cemetery 184
6.4 PG pit and hole cremation in the Kerameikos cemetery,
Athens 187
6.5 Plan of burials in the Lefkandi ‘Heroön’ 188
6.6 Plan of Lefkandi: Toumba cemetery 192
7.1 Distribution map of special pottery types 208
7.2 Faience vessels from Lefkandi 210
7.3 Bronze bowl from Lefkandi 211
7.4 Distribution map of pre-800 Greek pottery outside
the Aegean 212
8.1 Postpalatial and EIA sites with significant ritual evidence 220
8.2 Some early shrine plans 226
8.3 A range of LM IIIC ritual items 227
8.4 Postpalatial and EIA clay figures and figurines 229
8.5 The Lefkandi centaur 230

Tables
4.1 Faunal remains from Cretan Postpalatial–EIA sites 81
4.2 Estimated populations of Cretan Postpalatial–EIA sites 100

ix
 PREFACE

This book essentially shares the purpose of The Aegean Bronze Age (hereafter
Dickinson 1994a), to provide a short introductory survey, as up to date as
possible, of a period in Greek prehistory, in this case that commonly termed
the Dark Age. This is generally considered to take in most or all of the five
centuries 1200–700 bc (all subsequent dating references will be bc unless
otherwise specified), a period that has increasingly been perceived to play a
pivotal role in the long-term processes of Greek development, since it repre-
sents the transition between two very different forms of civilisation. The
collapse of the Bronze Age civilisations at the beginning of the period meant
the end of a sophisticated system of social organisation that had dominated
the leading regions of the Aegean for centuries, and it has generally been
taken to involve a good deal more, the uprooting and dispersal of whole
populations and the reduction of surviving communities throughout the
Aegean to small and impoverished villages, which at best had only intermit-
tent contact with a wider world. How these communities were able to
rebuild themselves and establish the very different civilisation of later
Greece, and how much this owed to developments in the intervening period,
have been scholarly preoccupations for a long time.
Since the 1970s, when three seminal studies were written (Snodgrass 1971;
Desborough 1972; Coldstream 1977), the period has attracted an increasing
amount of attention. This has focused particularly on the Geometric period
(900–700), for which much more material has become available, but there
has also been some important work on the earlier phases. However, the need
for a new general survey that takes account both of all the new material and
of the increasingly critical approach to traditional viewpoints and methods of
interpreting archaeological data has not yet been met. Snodgrass (1971) was
reissued in 2000, but contains only a new foreword. Thomas and Conant
(1999) covers the whole period, but is unsatisfactory at the basic level of its
methodology, in using single sites (and not always the most obvious) to
illuminate the successive centuries, and contains many questionable state-
ments. Lemos (2002) is a useful if rather traditional account of the material,
but focuses solely on the Protogeometric period and on a limited part of

x
 P R E FA C E

Greece. A reissue of Coldstream (1977) with a supplementary chapter in

2003 is very useful, as are various shorter discussions of the ‘Dark Age’ that
are part of more extensive studies (Morris, I. 1987, 1997, and 1999: chs 3
and 6; Snodgrass 1987: ch. 6; Whitley 1991a, and 2001: ch. 5), but though
valuable these do give some prominence to debatable hypotheses.
I hope, rather rashly, to improve on all these, but must stress that this
book cannot be expected to do more than give an introduction to the
period and its problems. Responding to the strictures of some reviewers of
Dickinson (1994a), I emphasise that this does not mean that it can be easily
understood by someone who knows nothing whatever about Greece or
Aegean archaeology. Rather, it means that it is of limited length, so that
topics cannot be discussed exhaustively, and major sites and collections of
data must be referred to rather than described at length.
I trust that I will be forgiven for frequent references to Dickinson (1994a),
but where I have discussed a topic in some detail there and have not altered
my views significantly, this seems the best way to make use of limited space.
Among the references that I have chosen to cite are unpublished conference
papers, when I think that their content is sufficiently important to merit
this; I hope that I have conveyed their content correctly. It is almost inevit-
able, given the amount now being published, that I will have overlooked
some discussions, and I may well not have paid sufficient attention to some
that oppose or update views that I have chosen to follow, especially on such
topics as ‘Homeric society’. But this study has been delayed long enough
already; I now commit myself to publication.
Oliver Dickinson
September 2005

xi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to cite, in the place of honour, Sue Sherratt, who has been good
enough to read draft chapters twice, at a five-year interval, and whose
extremely valuable comments have made this a far more consistent and,
I hope, coherently argued book than it would have been without them. I am
also especially indebted to Cathy Morgan for valuable comments on several
chapters; to Fanouria Dakoronia, Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy, Birgitta Eder, Maria
Kayafa, and Mary Voyatzis for generously sharing significant information
and for sending unpublished texts about important material; to John Bintliff
for providing copies of his own and others’ articles at a crucial moment;
and to Zofia Stos and Ellis Jones for providing much help on the topic of
metal sources and their exploitation. Many others have also provided books,
offprints, information, original illustrations, and comments: I would like
to mention Claire Adams, Vasiliki Adrymi-Sismani, Bob Arnott, Paul
Åström, Clarissa Belardelli, Elisabetta Borgna, Helen Hughes Brock,
Cyprian Broodbank, Gerald Cadogan, Jill Carington-Smith, Hector Catling,
Richard Catling, Nicolas Coldstream, Anna Lucia D’Agata, Jack Davis,
Katie Demakopoulou, Søren Dietz, Nicoletta Divari-Valakou, Robert Drews,
Lisa French, Barbro Santillo Frizell, Ioannis Georganas, Kevin Glowacki,
Robin Hägg, Donald Haggis, Jonathan Hall, Anthony Harding, Georgia
Hatzi, Reinhard Jung, Vassos Karageorghis, Imma Kilian-Dirlmeier, Irene
Lemos, Yannos Lolos, Joseph Maran, Holly Martlew, Hartmut Matthäus,
Jennifer Moody, Sarah Morris, Penelope Mountjoy, Jim Muhly, Richard
Nicholls, Krzysztof Nowicki, Robin Osborne, Mani Papakonstantinou, John
Papadopoulos, Michaelis Petropoulos, Peter Rhodes, David Ridgway, Jerry
Rutter, Hugh Sackett, Elizabeth Schofield†, Cynthia Shelmerdine, Anthony
Snodgrass, Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, Andreas Vlachopoulos, Leonidas
Vokotopoulos, Gisela Walberg, Saro Wallace, Ken Wardle, Todd Whitelaw,
James Whitley, Malcolm Wiener, Jim Wright, Assaf Yasur-Landau, and
Marika Zeimbekis. I would also like to thank my Ph.D. student Guy
Middleton for his astute comments on some ideas of mine.
I am extremely grateful to Sven Schroeder and Hayley Saul of the

xii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Department of Archaeology, University of York, for their help with the

figures, almost all of which Miss Saul has prepared.
I am indebted to the University of Durham for the grant of terms of
research leave in 1996, 1998 and 2003, and to the Department of Classics
and Ancient History for its cooperation in allowing me to follow the 1998
term with a term of unpaid leave in 1999, funded by a generous grant from
the Institute for Aegean Prehistory. This largely freed me from academic
responsibilities for most of a year, which was invaluable in the writing of this
book, and I am deeply grateful to all the institutions concerned.
Thanks are also due to the following for providing photographs or line
drawings and for giving permission to publish them: Mrs V. Adrymi-Sismani
(the original of Figure 2.3); Prof. D. Haggis (Figure 4.4); the Department of
Classics, University of Cincinnati, and Prof. T. Palaima (Figure 2.2); the
Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati and Dr S. Stocker (Figure
3.2); The National Archaeological Museum, Athens, and Dr Papazoglou-
Maniati (Figure 3.3); the American School of Classical Studies at Athens:
Agora Excavations (Figure 5.2); the British School of Archaeology at Athens
(Figures 2.5, 5.1, 5.11, 5.12, 5.23, 7.2, 7.3, 8.5); the Deutsches Archäo-
logisches Institut, Athens (Figures 5.9, 5.15, 5.16, 6.4).

xiii
 ABBREVIATIONS

Periodicals
AA Archäologischer Anzeiger
AAA Athens Annals of Archaeology (Αρχαιολογικά
Ανάλεκτα εξ Αθηνν)
AD Αρχαιολογικν Δελτον
AJA American Journal of Archaeology
AR Archaeological Reports (supplement to JHS)
AS Anatolian Studies
AthMitt Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts:
Athenische Abteilung
BCH Bulletin de correspondance hellénique
BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, University of
London
BSA Annual of the British School at Athens
CAJ Cambridge Archaeological Journal
CQ Classical Quarterly
CR Classical Review
IJNA International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
JDAI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologisches Instituts
JFA Journal of Field Archaeology
JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies
JMA Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology
OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology
OpAth Opuscula Atheniensia
PAE Πρακτικά τ εν ΑΘναι Αρχαιολογικ Εταιρεα
ProcCamPhilSoc Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society
PZ Praehistorische Zeitschrift
RDAC Report of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus
SMEA Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici

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