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-
Principle Key Ideas

1. Do No Harm This is a primary obligation. Anthropologists must avoid harm to dignity, as well as bodily and material
well-being, especially among vulnerable populations. This principle can supersede the goal of seeking new
knowledge, even forcing the cancellation of a project. Anthropologists must be aware of any potential
unintended consequences of their research. Archaeologists in particular must seek "conservation, protec-
tion, and stewardship" of irreplaceable objects.
2. Be Open and Honest Anthropologists muse be clear, honest, and open regarding the purpose, methods, outcomes, and sponsors
Regarding Your Own Work of their work. They muse not mislead participants, conduct secret or clandestine research, or omit signifi-
cant information chat might affect an individual's decision co participate. They muse consider the poten-
tial impact of che research and its dissemination. They should explicicly negotiate with research partners
about the ownership of and access to records. Researchers muse not plagiarize, fabricate, or falsify data
(except for che use of pseudonyms or ocher minor modifications to limit informants' exposure to risks).
3. Obtain Informed Consent Anthropologists muse obtain voluntary and informed consent of participants. They must explain their
and Necessary Permissions goals, methods, funding, and expectations regarding anonymity and credit. This principle recognizes chat
consent is dynamic and may need to be renegotiated. Signed consent forms are not automatically neces-
sary; it is che quality, not che format , oT the consent chat is important. All research permissions and per-
mits must be acquired in advance.
4. Weigh Competing Ethical Anthropologists must recognize and weigh competing obligations to participants, students, colleagues,
Obligations Due funders , etc. (Usually primary responsibilities are to participants, especially vulnerable ones .) They muse
Collaborators and Affected be able to distinguish between interdependencies of interests and also be prepared to be explicit about
Parties their ethical obligations. They muse not agree to conditions that inappropriately change che research. In a
collaboration, open negotiation is more important than credit, ownership, etc.
5. Make Your Results Anthropologists muse disseminate the results of their research in a timely fashion, including with partici-
Accessible pants. Preventing or limiting dissemination, such as co protect confidentiality, may be appropriate.
6. Protect and Preserve Your Anthropologists must ensure che integrity, preservation, and protection of their work. Unless otherwise
Records established (such as in collaborations), research belongs to the researcher. Clarity about who owns the
records of che research is critical. Priority must be given to ensure the security and confidentiality of raw
data and collected materials, and to ensure chat these not be used toward unauthorized ends. Anthropolo-
gists muse inform participants about the uses of records. Generally, che advantages of preserving data out-
weigh the potential benefits of destroying materials for the sake of confidentiality.
7. Maintain Respectful and Anthropologists must promote an equitable, supportive, and sustainable workplace environment. They
Ethical Professional must report research misconduct when they observe it, and they must not obstruct the responsible schol-
Relationships arly efforts of others. They must also provide acknowledgements and credit where they are due.
Source: Adapted from http://ethics.americananchro.o rg/category/starement/.
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Welsch, Robert Louis, 1950- author. I Vivanco, Luis Antonio,
1969- author.
Title: Cultural anthropology : asking questions about humanity /
Robert L. Welsch, Franklin Pierce University, Luis A. Vivanco,
University of Vermont.
Description: Second edition. I New York: Oxford University Press, (2018) I
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017031718 I ISBN 9780190679026 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Ethnology.
Classification: LCC GN316 .W47 2018 I DDC 305.8-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017031718

98765432
Printed by LSC Communications
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

..
 Robert L. Welsch:

To Sarah for her love and support, and to my students who have nudged me toward a broader
and more complex view of the human condition and humanity's remarkable diversity.

Luis A. Vivanco:

To Peggy, Isabel, Felipe, and Camila for their love and support, and to my students who have
taught me much about the importance of inspired teaching and learning.
 ••
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Brief 1
Anthropology:
Asking Questions About Humanity 2 ••
••
Contents 2 Culture:
Giving Meaning to Human Lives 30 •••
••
3 Ethnography:
Studying Culture 54 ••
•••
4 linguistic Anthropology:
Relating Language and Culture 80 ••
••
5 Global ization and Culture:
Understanding Global Interconnections 108 ••
•••
6 Foodways:
Finding, Making, and Eating Food 136
•••
•
7 Environmental Anthropology:
Relating to the Natural World 164 ••
••
Economics:
8 Working, Sharing, and Buying 190 ••
••
Politics: ••
9 Cooperation, Conflict, and Power Relations 218
•••
lo Race, Ethnicity, and Class:
Understanding Identity and Social Inequality 246
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••
Gender, Sex, and Sexuality: ••
11 The Fluidity of Maleness and Femaleness 274
Kinship, Marriage, and the Family: •••
12 Love, Sex, and Power 300 •••
••
13 Religion:
Ritual and Belief 328 ••
•••
14 The Body:
Biocultural Perspectives on Health and Illness 356 ••
••
15 Materiality:
Constructing Social Relationships and Meanings •••
with Things 384 ••
. e
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VII

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 u
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Contents •••
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Letter &om the Authors xxi
About the Authors xxii
Preface xxiii
••
Acknowledgments xxviii •••
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Anthropology: ••
1 Asking Questions About Humanity 3 •••
How Did Anthropology Begin? 5 •••
The Disruptions of Industrialization 5 •
The Theory of Evolution 6 ••
Colonial Origins of Cultural Anthropology 7 ••
Anthropology as a Global Discipline 8 ••
What Do the Four Subfields of Anthropology Have in Common? 8 ••
Culture 10 ••
Cultural Relativism 11
Human Diversity 12
•••
Change 13 ••
Holism 14 ••
How Do Anthropologists Know What They Know? 14 •••
•••
The Scientific Method in Anthropology 16
When Anthropology Is Not a Science: Interpreting Other Cultures 19

How Do Anthropologists Put Their Knowledge to •••

Work in the World? 20 ••
Applied and Practicing Anthropology: The Fifth Subfield? 20 ••
•••
Putting Anthropology to Work 21

What Ethical Obligations Do Anthropologists Have? 23 ••

•••
Do No Harm. But Is That Enough? 23
Take Responsibility for Your Work. But How Far Does That Go? 24
Share Your Findings. But Who Should Control Those Findings? 25 ••
••
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•• ix
•••
•
X CONTENTS

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Edward Burnett Tylor and the Culture

Concept 11
- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Should Anthropologists Take
Responsibility for the Influences They Have on the Societies They
Study? 26
- DOING FIELDWORK: Conducting Holistic Research with Stanley
Ulijaszek 15

Culture:
2 Giving Meaning to Human Lives 31

What Is Culture? 33
Elements of Culture 33
Defining Culture in This Book 39

If Culture Is Always Changing, Why Does It Feel So Stable? 41

Symbols 42
Values 42
Norms 42
Traditions 43

How Do Social Institutions Express Culture? 44

Culture and Social Institutions 45
American Culture Expressed Through Breakfast Cereals and Sexuality 45

Can Anybody Own Culture? 49

- CLASSIC CONTRI BUTI O NS: Franz Boas and the Relativity of Culture 40
THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Understanding Holism 48
ANTHROPO LOGIST AS PRO BLEM SOLVER: Michael Ames
and Collaborative Museum Exhibits 50

3 Et hnography:
Studying Culture 55

What Distinguishes Ethnographic Fieldwork from Other Types

of Social Research? 57
Fieldwork 58
Seeing the World from "the Native's Point of View" 58
Avoiding Cultural "Tunnel Vision" 61

How Do Anthropologists Actually Do Ethnographic Fieldwork? 63

Participant Observation: Disciplined "Hanging Out" 63
Interviews: Asking and Listening 64
Scribbling: Taking Fieldnotes 66
 CONTENTS XI

What Other Methods Do Cultural Anthropologists Use? 68

Comparative Method 68
Genealogical Method 69
Life Histories 70
Ethnohistory 70
Rapid Appraisals 70
Action Research 70
Anthropology at a Distance 71
Analysis of Secondary Materials 72
Special Issues Facing Anthropologists Studying Their Own Societies 73

What Unique Ethical Dilemmas Do Ethnographers Face? 75

Protecting Informant Identity 76
Anthropology, Spying, and War 77

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Bronislaw Malinowski on the

Ethnographic Method 62
- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Fieldwork in an
American Mall 59
lB1 ANTHROPOLOGIST AS PROBLEM SOLVER: Aleida Rita Ramos
and Indigenous Rights in Brazil 7 4

4 Linguistic Anthropology:
Relating Language and Culture 81
How Do Anthropologists Study Language? 83

Where Does Language Come From? 85

Evolutionary Perspectives on Language 85
Historical Linguistics: Studying Language Origins and Change 86

How Does Language Actually Work? 89

Descriptive Linguistics 89
Sociolinguistics 91

Does Language Shape How We Experience the World? 93

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 93
Hopi Notions ofTime 93
Ethnoscience and Color Terms 95
Is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Correct? 96

If Language Is Always Changing, Why Does It Seem So Stable? 97

Linguistic Change, Stability, and National Policy 97
Language Stability Parallels Cultural Stability 98
xii CONTENTS

How Does Language Relate to Power and Social Inequality? 100

Languageideology 100
Gendered Language Styles 100
Language and Social Status 102
Language and the Legacy of Colonialism 10 3
Language and New Media Technologies 103

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Edward Sapir on How Language Shapes Culture 94

- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Exploring Relationships of Power
and Status in Local American Dialects 101
- DOING FIELDWORK: Helping Communities Preserve Endangered Languages 99

5 Globalization and Culture:

Understanding Global Interconnections 109
Is the World Really Getting Smaller? 112
Defining Globalization 112
The World We Live In 113

What Are _the Outcomes of Global Integration? 116

Colonialism and World Systems Theory 118
Cultures of Migration 119
Resistance at the Periphery 121
Globalization and Localization 122

Doesn't Everyone Want to Be Developed? 123

What Is Development? 124
Development Anthropology 124
Anthropology of Development 125
Change on Their Own Terms 126

If the World Is Not Becoming Homogenized, What Is Actually

Happening? 127
Cultural Convergence Theories 127
Hybridization 128

How Can Anthropologists Study Global Interconnections? 130

Defining an Object of Study 130
Multi-Sited Ethnography 132

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Eric Wolf, Culture, and the World System 120
- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Understanding Global Integration
Through Commodities 117
- DOING FIELDWORK: Tracking Emergent Forms of Citizenship
with Aihwa Ong 131
 CONTENTS xiii

6 Food ways:
Finding, Making, and Eating Food 137

Why Is There No Universal Human Diet? 140

Human Dietary Adaptability and Constraints 140
Cultural Influences on Human Evolution: Digesting Milk 141

Why Do People Eat Things That Others Consider

Disgusting? 142
Foodways and Culture 142
Foodways Are Culturally Constructed 143
Foodways Communicate Symbolic Meaning 144
Foodways Mark Social Boundaries and Identities 145
Foodways Are Dynamic 145

How Do Different Societies Get Food? 148

Foraging 149
Horticulture 150
Pastoralism 151
Intensive Agriculture 153
Industrial Agriculture 153

How Are Contemporary Foodways Changing? 155

Contradictory Patterns in India's Changing Foodways 155
Industrial Foods, Sedentary Lives, and the Nutrition Transition 156
The Return of Local and Organic Foods? 159
The Biocultural Logic of Local Foodways 160

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Audrey Richards and the Study

of Foodways 143
- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Food Preferences
and Gender 146
ANTHROPOLOGIST AS PROBLEM SOLVER: Teresa Mares
and Migrant Farmworkers' Food Security in Vermont 157

Environmental Anthropology:
7 Relating to the Natural World 165

Do All People See Nature in the Same Way? 168

The Human-Nature Divide? 169
The Cultural Landscape 170

How Does Non,West ern Knowledge of Nature Relate to Science? 171

Ethnoscience 172
Traditional Ecological Knowledge 173
xiv CONTENTS

Are Industrialized Western Societies the Only Ones to

Conserve Nature? 175
Anthropogenic Landscapes 176
The Culture of Modern Nature Conservation 177
Is Collaborative Conservation Possible? 179

How Do Social and Cultural Factors Drive Environmental

Destruction? 180
Population and Environment 180
Ecological Footprint 181
Political Ecology 183
Anthropology Confronts Climate Change 186

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Roy Rappaport's Insider and Outsider Models 175

- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Identifying Hidden Costs 184
- DOING FIELDWORK: James Fairhead and Melissa Leach on Misreading the
African Landscape 182

Economics:
8 Working, Sharing, and Buying 191
Is Money Really the Measure of All Things? 194
Culture, Economics, and Value 195
The Neoclassical Perspective 196
The Substantivist-Formalist Debate 196
The Marxist Perspective 197
The Cultural Economics Perspective 199

How Does Culture Shape the Value and Meaning of Money? 201
The Cultural Dimensions of Money 201
Money and the Distribution of Power 202

Why Is Gift Exchange Such an Important Part of All Societies? 203

Gift Exchange and Economy: Two Classic Approaches 203
Gift Exchange in Market-Based Economies 207

What Is the Point of Owning Things? 208

Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Property 208
Appropriation and Consumption 208

Does Capitalism Have Distinct Cultures? 211

Culture and Social Relations on Wall Street 212
Entrepreneurial Capitalism Among Malays 213

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Marshall Sahlins on Exchange in

Traditional Economies 198
 CONTENTS XV

- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: The Role of Exchange in

Managing Social Relationships 205
ANTHROPOLOGIST AS PROBLEM SOLVER: Jim Yong Kim's Holistic,
On-the-Ground Approach to Fighting Poverty 214

9 Politics:
Cooperation, Conflict, and Power Relations 219
Does Every Society Have a Government? 221
The Idea of "Politics" and the Problem of Order 222
Structural-Functionalist Models of Political Stability 223
Neo-Evolutionary Models of Political Organization: Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms,
and States 223
Challenges to Traditional Political Anthropology 224

What Is Political Power? 227

Defining Political Power 227
Political Power Is Action-Oriented 228
Political Power Is Structural 228
Political Power Is Gendered 229
Political Power in Non-State Societies 230
The Political Power of the Contemporary Nation-State 231

Why Do Some Societies Seem More Violent Than Others? 235

What Is Violence? 235
Violence and Culture 236
Explaining the Rise of Violence in Our Contemporary World 237

How Do People Avoid Aggression, Brutality, and War? 239

What Disputes Are "About" 239
How People Manage Disputes 240
Is Restoring Harmony Always the Best Way? 241

• CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: E. E. Evans-Pritchard on Segmentary Lineages 226

THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: The Power of Personal
Connections 232
ANTHROPOLOGIST AS PROBLEM SOLVER: Maxwell Owusu and Democracy
in Ghana 234

Race, Ethnicity, and Class:

10 Understanding Identity and Social Inequality 247
Is Race Biological? 249
The Biological Meanings (and Meaninglessness) of "Human Races" 250
Race Does Have Biological Consequences 253
xvi CONTENTS

How Is Race Culturally Constructed? 254

The Construction of Blackness and Whiteness in Colonial Virginia and
Beyond 254
Racialization in Latin America 255
Saying "Race Is Culturally Constructed" Is Not Enough 258

How Are Other Social Classifications Naturalized? 259

Ethnicity: Common Descent 259
Class: Economic Hierarchy in Capitalist Societies 260
Caste: Moral Purity and Pollution 262

Are Prejudice and Discrimination Inevitable? 263

Understanding Prejudice 264
Discrimination, Explicit and Disguised 266
The Other Side of Discrimination: Unearned Privilege 268

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Hortense Powdermaker on Prejudice 265

- THINKING LIKE AN ANTHROPOLOGIST: Counting and Classifying
Race in the American Census 256
- DOI NG Fl ELDWORK: Tamie Tsuchiyama and Fieldwork in a Japanese-American
Internment Camp 269

Gender, Sex, and Sexuality:

11 The Fluidity of Maleness and Femaleness 275
How and Why Do Males and Females Differ? 277
Shifting Views on Male and Female Differences 277
Beyond the Male-Female Binary 280
Do Hormones Really Cause Gendered Differences in Behavior? 281

Why Is There Inequality Between Men and Women? 283

Debating "The Second Sex" 283
Taking Stock of the Debate 284
Reproducing Male-Female Inequalities 285

What Does It Mean to Be Neither Male Nor Female? 286

Navajo Nddleehe 287
Indian Hijras 289
Trans in the United States 290

Is Human Sexuality Just a Matter of Being Straight or Queer? 291

Cultural Perspectives on Same-Sex Sexuality 294
Controlling Sexuality 297

- CLASSIC CONTRIBUTIONS: Margaret Mead and the Sex/Gender

Distinction 279
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