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00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page i

On Opera
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page ii
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page iii

On Opera
Bernard Williams

YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS

NEW HAVEN AND LONDON
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page iv

Copyright © 2006 Yale University

All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form
(beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and
except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from the publishers.

For information about this and other Yale University Press publications, please contact:
U.S. Office: [email protected] www.yalebooks.com
Europe Office: [email protected] www.yalebooks.co.uk
www.yaleup.co.uk

Set in Minion by J&L Composition, Filey, North Yorkshire

Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Ltd, Bury St Edmunds

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Williams, Bernard Arthur Owen.

On opera / Bernard Williams.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0–300–08976–7 (alk. paper)
1. Opera. I. Title.
ML1700.W48 2006
782.1—dc22
2006017015

A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page v

Contents

Editorial Preface by Patricia Williams vii

Introduction by Michael Tanner xii

1 The Nature of Opera: Entry for The New Grove Dictionary

of Opera 1
2 Mozart’s Comedies and the Sense of an Ending 20
3 Mozart’s Figaro: A Question of Class? 25
4 Don Giovanni as an Idea 31
5 Passion and Cynicism: Remarks on Così fan tutte 43
6 Rather Red than Black: Verdi, Don Carlos and the Passion for
Freedom 49
7 Tristan and Time 57
8 The Elusiveness of Pessimism: Responding to the Ring 62
9 Wagner and the Transcendence of Politics 70
10 L’Envers des destinées: Remarks on Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande 90
11 Manifest Artifice: The Ingenuity of Puccini 99
12 Comments on Opera and Ideas: From Mozart to Strauss by Paul
Robinson 107
13 The Marriage and the Flute: Tippett and Mozart 113
14 Janáček’s Modernism: Doing Less with More in Music and
Philosophy 118
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page vi

vi CONTENTS

15 Authenticity and Re-creation: Musicology, Performance and

Production 121
16 Naïve and Sentimental Opera Lovers 131

Acknowledgments 144
Index of Names and Works 146
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page vii

Editorial Preface
by Patricia Williams

My husband, Bernard Williams, was working on this collection when he

was diagnosed with cancer. Acknowledging that time might be running
out, he focussed on completing his final philosophical book (Truth and
Truthfulness, published in 2002), hoping to turn back to writing about
opera. Sadly, he died in 2003.
As as a teenager in the London suburbs, Bernard fell in love with opera.
He collected records and went to performances of the Carl Rosa Company
and Sadler’s Wells, writing his own ‘reviews’ of operas and movies in a
school exercise book. Many years later, to his great delight, he was
appointed to the Board of the English National Opera (then Sadler’s
Wells) and later chaired the opera committee for three years when George
(Lord) Harewood was managing director and after the company moved to
its present home at the London Coliseum. Ideas for many of the essays in
this book were conceived over the twenty years of Bernard’s association
with ENO during which time we saw almost every new production at
ENO, Covent Garden and, later, at Glyndebourne.
George Harewood and his colleagues were devoted to the performance of
opera in English so as to bring it to new audiences, to spotting and training
talented young singers from Britain and the Commonwealth, and to the
esprit of the company where rehearsals mattered and no-one flew in to be
the star of the evening at the last minute. Artistically and musically, those
were wonderful days. At the heart of it all was the brilliant and incredibly
hard-working Charles Mackerras (musical director 1970–77) and the
remarkable, and remarkably youthful, duo of Mark Elder (musical director
from 1979) and David Pountney (director of productions from 1982).
Through his pioneering and unforgettable performances, Mackerras had
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page viii

viii E D I T O R I A L P R E FA C E

already introduced Bernard and many others to the operas of Janáček. A

performance of The Makropulos Case at ENO prompted Bernard to reflect
on the tedium of immortality: why the prospect of living forever made life
itself meaningless and was therefore intolerable. The essay he later wrote
became well known among philosophers but Bernard was more attached
to it as a reminder of the inspirational power of Janáček’s music.
I shall never forget the tremendous excitement and buzz in the foyer of
ENO as bus-loads of people arrived from London and further afield (many
of whom would never have gone to the Royal Opera House) to hear the
Ring in English for the first time. The triumph of Reginald Goodall’s Ring,
completed in 1973, the special ‘home-grown’ achievement of Alberto
Remedios, Rita Hunter, Norman Bailey and many other young singers and
players made a whole new generation of Wagnerians of us all, including
Bernard: ‘On some evenings, when Reginald Goodall’s patiently synoptic
vision took hold, and Alberto Remedios showed what it is to be that very
thing, a truly lyrical “Heldentenor”, all the limitations disappeared, the
creaking space-age scenery seemed to dissolve into light, and it was as if
there were no tomorrow.’
Bernard gained a huge respect for the manifold skills that are vital to the
creative, administrative and financial health of an opera house from
observing the work and commitment of George Harewood himself, of
Edmund Tracey, the wickedly funny and expert dramaturge, translator
and supporter of singers, and Arnold (Lord) Goodman, the consummate
negotiator and fixer. Extraordinary things were achieved, and in spite of all
the familiar constraints of under-funding and financial uncertainty that
opera in London faced, then as now.
Life as Provost of King’s College, and the company of musical friends
and colleagues in Cambridge also played a part in Bernard’s thinking
about opera. He was deeply proud and protective of the achievements of
the Choir, and the role of the College in providing young musicians with
a broad education in music and exposure to all a university had to offer
before they began the formal rigours of professional training. He, rightly,
took no credit for their success but he was delighted that former students
and choristers – Robert Tear, John Eliot Gardiner, Andrew Davis, James
Gilchrist, Judith Weir, Mark Padmore, George Benjamin, Gerald Finley,
Matthew Best, Thomas Adès, Paul Daniel, Edward Gardner, Christopher
Gillett and so many others – go on to make their names in the world of
opera and music. Jonathan Miller’s production, for Kent Opera, of Così fan
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00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page ix

E D I T O R I A L P R E FA C E ix

tutte in Cambridge, prompted Bernard to think more about ‘the problem’

of Mozart’s great opera. Opera was one of the many interests he and
Jonathan shared and discussed over the years.
As a philosopher, Bernard was concerned with life and how it should
be lived, with notions of truth and authenticity, with the role of luck in
moral and political thought, with conflicting moral obligations in public
and private life and with virtues and vices – in classical Greece, the
Enlightenment, the Europe of Nietzsche and Wagner and the contempo-
rary world. Such matters are at the very heart of opera as a dramatic art.
Barry Stroud, a fellow philosopher, has paid tribute to the grounded
humanity of Bernard’s philosophy:

He brought human life into philosophy, and so into the philosophy of all of
us . . . The aspects of humanity he tried hardest to make sense of are among
its most puzzling and difficult: the need to answer the question of how best
to live, and then how to understand the possibility of so many different and
equally defensible answers to the question. The challenge was always to
make sense of humanity itself. Nothing transcendent, no principles of
disembodied ‘reason’ or impersonal ‘utility’, will do. The answers can lie
only within what is true of thinking and feeling human beings, their
cultures and their histories and their aspirations.
He brought human life into philosophy in another and more personal
and so more immediate way. He exuded life itself in his own
philosophising, as in everything else he did . . . You could not fail to be
enlivened by his company and moved by the sheer enjoyment he felt for
whatever engaged him. With Bernard, philosophy, for all its difficulty and
seriousness, was filled with life, and it was fun.

Iain Fenlon, a musicologist, also recalled what fun it was to share

Bernard’s passion for opera: ‘Sheer delight, a sense of wonder at what
music can do was immediately evident in Bernard’s infectious reactions to
performance.’ He emphasised Bernard’s fascination with ‘the immediacy
and the power of its [music’s] emotional purchase, the ability of music to
move both the heart and the intellect’.
But readers will find that it never was, or is, necessary to be well
informed, or in the business either of music or philosophy, to enjoy these
essays. When I first met Bernard he took me to a performance of Tristan
at Covent Garden. So ignorant was I about opera then that it never
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page x

x E D I T O R I A L P R E FA C E

occurred to me to wonder whether this choice of work or composer might

be rather a test of our very new friendship. I never ceased to adore talking
to Bernard about opera from that night on. Re-reading these essays is a
vivid reminder of his gift for sharing his thoughts and his pleasures. I hope
old friends and new readers will feel the same.

Editing the text

It is clear from his notes that Bernard had selected the essays for this
volume and decided the rough order in which they should appear. He had
intended to revise some of them and to add new material.
He would certainly have eliminated or reduced the overlaps and repeti-
tions that are inevitable when essays written over a long period and for
different purposes are read, end to end, as a continuous text. Michael Black
and I have undertaken some of this work but decided it was preferable to
accept a few remaining repetitions than to second guess what Bernard
would have done. He might well have substituted alternative examples to
illustrate some of the major arguments and themes which run through
this collection. It is clear from his notes that one or two of the essays on
Wagner, or on Wagner in combination with other composers, would have
been merged into new and longer pieces.
Doubts were expressed about including the introductory article on
‘The Nature of Opera’ from The Grove Dictionary of Opera because,
having been commissioned for a reference book, it is written in a
different style from the rest of this collection. But Bernard had included
it in his list of contents and several reviewers of the Dictionary found it
a useful, if somewhat idiosyncratic, tour d’horizon for the general reader.
Bernard clearly intended to revise ‘Rather Red than Black’, the essay on
Verdi, to take account of more recent scholarly work by Roger Parker and
John Rosselli on the ‘political’ character of Verdi’s early operas such as
Nabucco and I Lombardi. But it was impossible to make out from his notes
what he would have said. We hope the original (hitherto unpublished)
essay will still give pleasure to a general audience without being seriously
misleading.
Readers who are familiar with the published version of Bernard’s
commentary on Opera and Ideas by Paul Robinson (Chapter 12) will
notice we have made cuts here to avoid excessive overlap with ‘Tristan and
Time’.
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page xi

E D I T O R I A L P R E FA C E xi

We added the text of a more recent lecture (Chapter 15) to a gathering

of musicologists because the ideas are of general interest to interpreters of
music – conductors, singers, players and directors – as well as to their audi-
ences. The aim is to outline the role of the musicological study of opera
and the performance of opera; to distinguish between the different and
distinctive conceptions of ‘authenticity’ which appropriately apply to
music, to literary text and to music drama; and to touch on the complex
problem of what might count as an artistic intention and what artistic
aims at a given time for a given composer were even possible:

We have seen in the opera house in recent years the co-existence of two
kinds of radicalism: an increasing ‘authenticity’ of orchestral and vocal
performance, based on historical research, and productions and sets that
display all degrees of rethinking and creativity up to the now notorious
extremes of directorial whimsy . . . What is significant in this is that
two kinds of radicalism can combine to the same end – an uncluttered
seemingly transparent enactment of what this particular work is.

Although addressed to an academic audience, it is a good example of how

philosophical skill can help to clarify notoriously confusing problems in a
subject of general interest to music lovers.

I am very grateful to Michael Tanner for writing an introduction to the

collection. I hope readers who look forward to Michael’s opera reviews in
the Spectator will be tempted by his recommendation to enjoy and argue
with Bernard, as he himself did for so many years.
Keith Thomas put me on the spot, and spurred me on, when, at the
memorial for Bernard at All Souls College, he expressed the hope that this
volume would be published. Alexander Goehr was extremely encouraging
when I had almost lost heart. Alison Latham’s extensive editorial experi-
ence was very helpful. Iain Fenlon took enormous care in advising Yale
University Press and helped to define what this book is about.
Robert Baldock’s continuing enthusiasm and confidence in this project
has meant a lot to me, and I am grateful for the care he and his colleagues
at Yale University Press have devoted to it.
My greatest debt is to Michael Black – a staunch friend to us both from
our earliest days. The combination of his editorial skill, judgement and
musical knowledge has been essential to the enterprise.
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page xii

Introduction
by Michael Tanner

Bernard Williams was a lifelong opera lover. He wrote often about operas,
as well as being on the Board of the Sadler’s Wells Opera before and
after it became the English National Opera and moved to the Coliseum.
Many of the pieces he wrote about specific operas were commissioned
for programmes at ENO or the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden,
others were given as talks on BBC Radio 3, in the intervals of opera
broadcasts.
But Bernard was also concerned with larger reflections about the
different ways in which the great opera composers achieve their dramatic
ends, and was increasingly absorbed by ‘the case of Wagner’, as the most
ambitious pieces in this collection show. Like all serious opera lovers, he
was also deeply interested in music generally, and in drama apart from
opera. (He wrote wonderfully about the Greek dramatists.)
One of the things that makes this collection of essays so impressive is
that at no point does one get the impression, so familiar when philoso-
phers write about the arts, that the ‘message’ of an opera is the thing that
counts, as distinct from the ‘medium’. Bernard, though one of the leading
Anglo-American philosophers of his generation, was very well aware of
the limitations of the discipline he professed: one of his most celebrated
and discussed books is called Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. It so
happens that in the last couple of decades a surprising number of Anglo-
American philosophers have shown an interest in opera – Peter Kivy, for
example, Roger Scruton on Tristan, and Robert Schacht and Philip Kitcher
on the Ring. But none of these has written so widely or, in my view, so illu-
minatingly as Williams, partly because he had no philosophical or
cultural-political agenda to pursue. He was peculiarly aware of the indi-
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page xiii

INTRODUCTION xiii

viduality of each of the great composers of opera, and his essays always
show a concern to be true to that.
Bernard’s earliest passions were for Mozart and Verdi, and he was fortu-
nate to be just old enough to go to Covent Garden for the visits of the
Vienna State Opera in 1947 and La Scala, Milan, in 1950, so he was able to
see and hear some of the great operatic artists of the time, both singers and
conductors, without undertaking the then hazardous journeys to main-
land Europe. These experiences, as well as performances by some of the
leading singers in Covent Garden’s regular company and its guests, gave
him an appetite for great singing. He was present at Richard Tauber’s last
stage appearance, as Don Ottavio with the Vienna State Opera, and at
Kirsten Flagstad’s Isolde in 1948.
For Bernard opera was much more closely associated with particular
performances than one might expect from a philosopher meditating on
works, composers and the operatic form as a whole. He was acutely
aware of the dangers, especially for anyone of an intellectual turn of mind,
of abstracting from his actual experiences of opera in order to give a tidy
but in fact inaccurate account of what the opera had been like as an expe-
rience, in the theatre or, less often, listened to on record. He loved to go to
performances with people who were as passionately involved with operas
as he was, and to argue with them afterwards, not so much about the
performance as about what it had been a performance of. Many of my own
discussions with him took place as he drove us back to Cambridge from
London after performances by the ENO in the Coliseum. We had a broadly
similar approach to opera, though he was suspicious of my unswerving
attachment to the critical views of my ‘master’ F. R. Leavis, which I
applied to opera just as much as to literature, and also of the extreme
degree of my devotion to Wagner.
There was in Bernard, as anyone who knew him well would agree, a
curious mixture of passion and detachment; not that the mixture is
unusual, only its particular combination in Bernard’s case. Moving
moments and dramatic climaxes in opera, perhaps more than in the other
arts, evoked a passionate response, and of a liberatingly immediate kind. I
think one of the things he loved about Verdi’s operas was the uninhibited-
ness with which his characters pour forth their feelings; certainly he
enjoyed the vigour with which they hurl themselves into catastrophe, and
the way in which they take any feeling that they have absolutely at its face
value. In this he was at one with his close friend Isaiah Berlin, who wrote
00 Prelims 1480 23/6/06 12:42 Page xiv

xiv INTRODUCTION

a celebrated and much-reprinted essay on ‘The Naïveté of Verdi’, which

Bernard discusses in his essay called ‘Naïve and Sentimental Opera Lovers’.
In the course of that essay, as he moves towards his central concern, his
differences with Berlin about Wagner, he doesn’t express any doubts about
what exactly Verdi’s naïveté comes to, though he must have felt as unclear
as I do about what that may be. When it came to Rossini, by contrast, I
think Bernard was repelled by exactly what attracted the old misanthropist
Schopenhauer (and the far from misanthropic Berlin): Rossini’s depiction
of people as puppets, jerked around by a force over which they have no
control. That, at any rate, was how Bernard regarded the most celebrated
Rossini comedies. He was very severe with any artist (not to mention any
philosopher) who denied to human beings their full humanity, as he saw
and felt it, and I think this was at the root of his devotion to Verdi and
his coolness about the less great figures in the bel canto tradition that
preceded him.
It is close to being a paradox about Verdi that although his subjects are
usually gloomy, and the outcomes of his operas misery and death, and
although that reflects Verdi’s own view of the nature of the world, there is
often, even usually, an enormous bracing élan to his music. It is fair to
conjecture that a musical person listening to a Verdi opera without
knowing the text or the drama would conclude that some lively enjoyment
was being had by the persons on stage. That primal energy both appealed
to Bernard and prevented him from feeling altogether as seriously about
Verdi as he did about Mozart or eventually about Wagner.
There is something in this area which is worth thinking about. There are
differing pleasures or satisfactions to be derived from opera, and the most
enjoyable operas are not necessarily the greatest – a remark which Bernard
confirms in quoting Berlin’s remark that Rigoletto is the most enjoyable of
operas. It offers in superabundance pleasures that are specifically operatic.
And therefore, Bernard sometimes suggests, suspect. We might take the
last act of Rigoletto. The events it depicts are appalling. In a seedy country
inn a professional assassin gets ready to murder the licentious Duke, whose
jester Rigoletto wants to have him eliminated since he has seduced Gilda,
Rigoletto’s daughter. Gilda turns up in disguise and offers herself instead
of the Duke, and the assassin kills her and gives the body in a sack to
Rigoletto, who gloats over the death until he hears the Duke singing,
realises he has been tricked, opens the sack and finds his dying daughter
within. Yet the drama is propelled by music consisting of, among other
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