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Structural Equation Modeling
Applications in ecological and evolutionary biology

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a technique that is used to estimate, analyze, and test
models that specify relationships among variables. The ability to conduct such analyses is
essential for many problems in ecology and evolutionary biology. This book begins by ex-
plaining the theory behind the statistical methodology, including chapters on conceptual
issues, the implementation of an SEM study, and the history of the development of SEM.
The second section provides examples of analyses on biological data including multi-group
models, means models, P-technique and time-series. The final section of the book deals with
computer applications and contrasts three popular SEM software packages. Aimed specifically
at biological researchers and graduate students, this book will serve as a valuable resource for
both learning and teaching the SEM methodology. Moreover, data sets and programs that are
presented in the book can also be downloaded from a web site to assist the learning process.

BRUCE H. PUGESEK is a research statistician in the US Geological Survey – Biological

Resources Division. He is the author of numerous scientific papers in the fields of ecology,
behavior, evolution, and applied statistics.

ADRIAN TOMER is an Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology at

Shippensburg University, Pennsylvania, where he teaches the psychology of aging and deve-
lopmental psychology. He has a particular interest in the application of structural equation
modeling to the behavioral and biological sciences.

ALEXANDER VON EYE is a Professor in the Department of Psychology at Michigan

State University, where much of his research is dedicated to the development and application
of statistical methods. He is the author of the book An Introduction to Configural Frequency
Analysis (1990, ISBN 0 521 38090 1).
Structural Equation Modeling

Applications in ecological and evolutionary biology

Edited by

BRUCE H. PUGESEK
US Geological Survey – Biological Resources Division,
Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Bozeman

ADRIAN TOMER
Department of Psychology, Shippensburg University, Pennsylvania

and

ALEXANDER VON EYE

Department of Psychology, Michigan State University
  
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , United Kingdom
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521781336

© Cambridge University Press 2003

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2003

-
isbn-13 978-0-511-06901-7 eBook (EBL)
-
isbn-10 0-511-06901-4 eBook (EBL)

-
isbn-13 978-0-521-78133-6 hardback
-
isbn-10 0-521-78133-7 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of

s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
To our wives with love
Yolanda, Daniela, and Donata
 Contents

List of contributors page ix

Preface xi

Section 1: Theory 1
1 Structural equation modeling: an introduction 3
Scott L. Hershberger, George A. Marcoulides and Makeba M. Parramore
2 Concepts of structural equation modeling in biological research 42
Bruce H. Pugesek
3 Modeling a complex conceptual theory of population change
in the Shiras moose: history and recasting as a structural
equation model 60
Bruce H. Pugesek
4 A short history of structural equation models 85
Adrian Tomer
5 Guidelines for the implementation and publication of structural
equation models 125
Adrian Tomer and Bruce H. Pugesek

Section 2: Applications 141

6 Modeling intraindividual variability and change in bio-behavioral
developmental processes 143
Patricia H. Hawley and Todd D. Little
7 Examining the relationship between environmental variables
and ordination axes using latent variables and structural
equation modeling 171
James B. Grace
8 From biological hypotheses to structural equation models:
the imperfection of causal translation 194
Bill Shipley

vii
CONTENTS

9 Analyzing dynamic systems: a comparison of structural equation

modeling and system dynamics modeling 212
Peter S. Hovmand
10 Estimating analysis of variance models as structural equation
models 235
Michael J. Rovine and Peter C. M. Molenaar
11 Comparing groups using structural equations 281
James B. Grace
12 Modeling means in latent variable models of natural selection 297
Bruce H. Pugesek
13 Modeling manifest variables in longitudinal designs – a
two-stage approach. 312
Bret E. Fuller, Alexander von Eye, Phillip K. Wood, and
Bobby D. Keeland

Section 3: Computing 353

14 A comparison of the SEM software packages Amos, EQS, and
LISREL 355
Alexander von Eye and Bret E. Fuller

Index 392

viii
 Contributors

Alexander von Eye Scott L. Hershberger

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
119 Snyder Hall California State University – Long
Michigan State University Beach
East Lansing, MI 48824-1117 1250 Bellflower Blvd
USA Long Beach, CA 90840
USA
Bret E. Fuller
Department of Public Health and Peter S. Hovmand
Preventive Medicine Institute for Children, Youth, and
Oregon Health and Sciences Families
University Kellogg Center, Suite 27
3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road Michigan State University
Mail Code CB-669 East Lansing, MI 48824
Portland, OR 97201-3098 USA
USA
Bobby D. Keeland
James B. Grace US Geological Survey – Biological
US Geological Survey – Biological Resources Division
Resources Division National Wetlands Research
National Wetlands Research Center Center
700 Cajundome Blvd 700 Cajundome Blvd
Lafayette, LA 70506 Lafayette, LA 70506
USA USA

Patricia H. Hawley Todd D. Little

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Yale University Yale University
Box 208205 Box 208205
New Haven, CT 06520-8205 New Haven, CT 06520-8205
USA USA

ix
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

George A. Marcoulides Michael J. Rovine

California State University, Director, Center for
Fullerton Development and Health
Department of Management Research Methodology
Science S-159 Henderson Human
Langsdorf Hall no. 540 Development Bldg
Fullerton, CA 92634 Pennsylvania State University
USA University Park, PA 16802
USA
Peter C. M. Molenaar
University of Amsterdam Bill Shipley
Faculteit der Maatschappij – en Département de Biologie
Gedragswetenschappen, Université de Sherbrooke
Afd. Psychologie Sherbrooke (Quebec)
Roetersstraat 15 Canada J1K 2R1
1018 WB
Amsterdam Adrian Tomer
The Netherlands Department of Psychology
Shippensburg University
Makeba M. Parramore Shippensburg, PA 17257
Department of Human USA
Development
Cornell University Philip K. Wood
Ithaca, NY 14853-2602 Department of Psychology
USA 210 McAlester Hall
University of Missouri
Bruce H. Pugesek Columbia, MO 62511
U.S. Geological Survey – Biological USA
Resources Division
Northern Rocky Mountain
Science Center
1648 S. 7th Street, MSU
Bozeman, MT 59717-2780
USA

x
 Preface

This book describes a family of statistical methods known as structural

equation modeling (SEM). SEM is used in a variety of techniques known
as “covariance structure analysis”, “latent variable modeling”, “path mod-
eling”, “path modeling with LISREL”, and sometimes it is mistaken for
path analysis. This book will help biologists to understand the distinction
between SEM and path analysis. The book consists of contributed chapters
from biologists as well as leading methodologists in other research fields. We
have organized the chapters and their content with the intent of providing
a volume that readers may use to learn the methodology and apply it
themselves to their research problems. We give the basic formulation of
the method as well as technical details on data analysis, interpretation, and
reporting. In addition, we provide numerous examples of research designs
and applications that are germane to the research needs and interests of
organismal biologists. We also provide, as a learning aide, the simulation
programs, analysis programs, and data matrices, presented in the book at
a website (http://www.usgs.gov/) so that readers may download and run
them.
The book is divided into three sections. The first section, “Theory”,
describes the SEM model and practical matters of its application. Chapter 1
lays out the mathematics of SEM in a comprehensible fashion. Using an
example from behavioral genetics, the authors express their model in what
is called LISREL notation, a symbolic language that is commonly used
to express SEM models. Chapter 2 describes SEM in a nonmathematical
fashion. It will provide the reader with insight into how SEM differs
from other methods and the benefits that may be obtained by using it. In
Chapter 3, the author uses Huston’s classic conceptual model of Shiras
moose population dynamics to demonstrate that a complex model can be
estimated and inferentially tested with SEM. The chapter provides examples
of nonzero fixed parameters, measurement and structural models, and illus-
trates the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory models, the
use of computer-generated information for model modification, and the

xi
PREFACE

concept and use of nested models. Chapter 4 provides a historical account

of the development of SEM beginning with its origins in correlation and
path analysis, and ending with the formulation of the LISREL model and
its more recent expansion. Chapter 5 describes the numerous epistemolog-
ical considerations that accompany an SEM study and provides guidelines
for the implementation and reporting of SEM results. Details on the devel-
opment of measurement instruments, sample size, model identification, fit
indices, and other considerations necessary to the successful implementation
of SEM are provided and well referenced. For those readers who wish only
to understand SEM so that they can read and appreciate research that utilizes
the method, we recommend that they read Chapters 1 through 3 of this
section. For those who wish to implement an SEM study we recommend
also Chapter 5. Everyone will benefit from reading the historical account
of SEM, Chapter 4, especially those who seek a review of key papers past
and present on the theoretical aspects of confirmatory factor analysis,
maximum likelihood estimation, and other key components of the SEM
methodology.
Section 2, “Applications”, provides a sampling of the numerous
ways that SEM can be employed. In Chapter 6, a confirmatory factor anal-
ysis of elephant behavior is presented. The authors provide examples of
P-technique where data from a single individual are analyzed on a number
of variables across a number of discrete points in time. Chapter 7 contrasts
ordination techniques commonly employed in plant biology with an SEM
approach. In Chapter 8, the author explores the notion of equivalent models
in which more than one model may explain a data set. In Chapter 9, the
author contrasts dynamic modeling, a method that is frequently employed
in the study of complex ecological systems, with SEM. The strengths, lim-
itations, and weaknesses of both methods are discussed. In Chapter 10, the
author describes means modeling with SEM. Three examples of ANOVA
applications, including, time-series analysis are presented. Chapter 11 ad-
dresses multigroup models, a method that allows comparisons of complex
systems of variables from two or more groups. This approach has signifi-
cant value for use in studies of multiple populations, habitat restoration, and
situations where experimental versus control settings are desired at levels
of organization such as the system or landscape level. Chapter 12 describes
means modeling with latent variables. An example is provided for the study
of natural selection in which environmental variables may impact pheno-
typic responses to a selection event. Chapter 13 provides an example of
longitudinal analysis with SEM. The authors analyze tree growth data with

xii
 PREFACE

SEM and contrast results with an analysis of the data using latent growth
curve methods.
Section 3, “Computing”, contains Chapter 14, which discusses the
relative merits of three popular software packages that perform SEM analysis.
The authors compare performances on an analysis of R. A. Fisher’s Iris data
as well as compare features available in the software packages.

xiii
Section 1 Theory
1 Structural equation modeling:
an introduction
Scott L. Hershberger, George A. Marcoulides,
and Makeba M. Parramore

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to structural equation modeling
(SEM), a statistical technique that allows scientists and researchers to quan-
tify and test scientific theories. As an example, a model from behavioral
genetics is examined, in which genetic and environmental influences on
a trait are determined. The many procedures and considerations involved
in SEM are outlined and described, including defining and specifying a
model diagrammatically and algebraically, determining the identification
status of the model, estimating the model parameters, assessing the fit of
the model to the data, and respecifying the model to achieve a better
fit to the data. Since behavioral genetic models typically require family
members of differing genetic relatedness, multisample SEM is introduced.
All of the steps involved in evaluating the behavioral genetic model are
accomplished with the assistance of LISREL, a popular software program
used in SEM.

Introduction
Structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques are considered today to be
a major component of applied multivariate statistical analyses and are used
by biologists, economists, educational researchers, marketing researchers,
medical researchers, and a variety of other social and behavioral scientists.
Although the statistical theory that underlies the techniques appeared
decades ago, a considerable number of years passed before SEM received the
widespread attention it holds today. One reason for the recent attention is
the availability of specialized SEM programs (e.g., AMOS, EQS, LISREL,
Mplus, Mx, RAMONA, SEPATH). Another reason has been the publica-
tion of several introductory and advanced texts on SEM (e.g., Hayduk, 1987,
1996: Bollen, 1989; Byrne, 1989, 1994, 2000; Bollen & Long, 1993; Hoyle,
1995; Marcoulides & Schumacker, 1996; Schumacker & Lomax, 1996;
Schumacker & Marcoulides, 1998; Raykov & Marcoulides, 2000), and a

3
S. HERSHBERGER ET AL.

journal, devoted exclusively to SEM, entitled Structural Equation Modeling:

A Multidisciplinary Journal.
In its broadest sense, SEM models represent translations of a series of
hypothesized cause–effect relationships between variables into a composite
hypothesis concerning patterns of statistical dependencies (Shipley, 2000).
The relationships are described by parameters that indicate the magnitude
of the effect (direct or indirect) that independent variables (either observed
or latent) have on dependent variables (either observed or latent). By enab-
ling the translation of hypothesized relationships into testable mathematical
models, SEM offers researchers a comprehensive method for the quantifica-
tion and testing of theoretical models. Once a theory has been proposed, it
can then be tested against empirical data. The process of testing a proposed
theoretical model is commonly referred to as the “confirmatory” aspect of
SEM (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2000). Another aspect of SEM is the so-called
“exploratory” mode. This aspect allows for theory development and often
involves repeated applications of the same data in order to explore potential
relationships between variables of interest (either observed or latent).
Latent variables are hypothetical or theoretical variables (constructs)
that cannot be observed directly. Latent variables are of major importance
to most disciplines but generally lack an explicit or precise way of measur-
ing their existence or influence. For example, many behavioral and social
scientists study the constructs of aggression and dominance. Because these
constructs cannot be measured explicitly, they are are inferred through obser-
ving or measuring specific features that operationally define them (e.g.,
tests, scales, self-reports, inventories, or questionnaires). SEM can also be
used to test the plausibility of hypothetical assertions about potential inter-
relationships between constructs and their observed measures or indicators.
Latent variables are hypothesized to be responsible for the outcome of obser-
ved measures (e.g., aggression is the underlying factor influencing one’s
score on a questionnaire that attempts to assess offensive driving behavior).
In other words, the score on the explicit questionnaire would be an indica-
tor of the construct or latent variable – aggression. Researchers often use a
number of indicators or observed variables to examine the influences of
a theoretical factor or latent variable. It is generally recommended that
researchers use multiple indicators (preferably more than two) for each latent
variable considered in order to obtain a more complete and reliable
“picture” than that provided by a single indicator (Raykov & Marcoulides,
2000). Because both observed and latent variables can be independent
or dependent in a proposed model, a more detailed description of this issue
will be provided later in this chapter.

4
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