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Understanding Modern Transistors and Diodes

Written in a concise, easy-to-read style, this text for senior undergraduate and graduate
courses covers all key topics thoroughly. It is also a useful self-study guide for practising
engineers who need a complete, up-to-date review of the subject.

Key features:
r Rigorous theoretical treatment combined with practical detail
r A theoretical framework built up systematically from the Schrödinger Wave Equation
and the Boltzmann Transport Equation
r Covers MOSFETS, HBTs, HJFETS, solar cells and LEDs.
r Uses the PSP model for MOSFETS
r Describes the operation of modern, high-performance transistors and diodes
r Evaluates the suitability of various transistor types and diodes for specific modern
applications
r Examines solar cells and LEDs for their potential impact on energy generation and
reduction
r Includes a chapter on nanotransistors to prepare students and professionals for the
future
r Rigorous treatment of device capacitance
r Provides results of detailed numerical simulations to compare with analytical solutions
r End-of-chapter exercises to aid understanding
r Online availability of sets of lecture slides for undergraduate and graduate courses

David L. Pulfrey is a Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

at the University of British Columbia, Canada, where he has been since receiving his
Ph.D. in 1968 from the University of Manchester, UK. He has won teaching awards at
the university-, provincial- and international-levels. Most recently he won the 2009 IEEE
Electron Devices Society Education Award “for contributions to the teaching of electron
devices at both the undergraduate and graduate levels”. He has received recognition for
his research work on a wide range of semiconductor devices by being elected Fellow of
the IEEE in 2000, and Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering in 2003.
Understanding Modern
Transistors and Diodes
DAVID L. PULFREY
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4
Canada
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521514606

© Cambridge University Press 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2010

ISBN-13 978-0-521-51460-6 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To Eileen
 Contents

Preface page xv

1 Introduction 1

2 Energy band basics 3

2.1 Periodic structures 3
2.2 Periodic potential 4
2.3 Schrödinger’s equation 6
2.4 Energy bands 7
2.5 Reduced-zone plot 10
2.6 Origin of the bandgaps 11
2.7 Quantum states and material classification 12
2.8 Band structure of real semiconductors 13
2.9 Crystal momentum and effective mass 16
2.9.1 Negative effective mass 18
2.9.2 Hole polarity 20
2.9.3 Parabolic-band approximation 20
2.10 Constant-energy surfaces 21
2.11 Effective-mass Schrödinger equation 23
2.11.1 Boundary conditions for the effective-mass
equation 25
2.12 Energy-band diagram 25
2.13 From microscopic to macroscopic 26
Exercises 26
References 28

3 Electron and hole concentrations 30

3.1 Creation of electrons and holes 30
3.1.1 Thermal generation 30
3.1.2 Optical generation 33
3.1.3 Electrical generation 34
3.1.4 Chemical generation 35
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viii Contents

3.2 Recombination 37
3.2.1 Band-to-band recombination 38
3.2.2 Recombination-generation-centre recombination 39
3.2.3 Auger recombination 40
3.2.4 Recombination lifetime 41
3.3 Carrier concentrations 43
3.4 Density-of-states effective masses in silicon 46
3.4.1 Electrons 46
3.4.2 Holes 46
Exercises 47
References 48

4 Thermal equilibrium 49
4.1 Collisions 49
4.2 The Fermi level 51
4.3 Equilibrium carrier concentrations and the Fermi level 53
4.4 Equations involving intrinsic properties 56
4.5 Mean unidirectional velocity of an equilibrium distribution 57
4.5.1 Effective mass and v R 60
4.5.2 Current and v R 60
Exercises 61
References 62

5 Charge transport 63
5.1 Charge, current and energy 63
5.2 The Boltzmann Transport Equation 64
5.2.1 The Method of Moments 65
5.2.2 The continuity equations 65
5.3 The device equation set 69
5.4 Mobility 71
5.4.1 Empirical expressions for mobility 73
5.4.2 Conductivity effective mass 74
5.5 Current 75
5.5.1 Drift current 76
5.5.2 Diffusion current 77
5.5.3 Thermal current 79
5.6 Ballistic transport 80
5.7 Tunnelling 81
5.7.1 Probability density current 81
5.7.2 Transmission probability 83
5.7.3 Tunnel current 85
Exercises 87
References 90
 Contents ix

6 np- and Np-junction basics 91

6.1 np-junction at equilibrium 91
6.1.1 The built-in voltage 93
6.1.2 Constructing an equilibrium energy-band
diagram 94
6.1.3 Potential profile 95
6.2 The Depletion Approximation 96
6.3 np-junction under bias 98
6.3.1 Constructing a non-equilibrium energy-band
diagram 100
6.3.2 Quasi-neutrality 101
6.3.3 Reverse bias 102
6.4 Quasi-Fermi levels 102
6.5 Shockley’s Law of the Junction 105
6.6 The ideal-diode equation 106
6.6.1 Deviations from ideality in diodes 108
6.7 Np-junction electrostatics 109
6.7.1 Energy band offsets 110
6.7.2 Junction space-charge region 110
6.7.3 Quasi-Fermi-level splitting 111
6.8 Emitter injection efficiency 113
Exercises 114
References 115

7 Solar cells 116

7.1 The Sun as an electrical resource 116
7.2 Absorption 118
7.3 Generation 119
7.4 Photocurrent 120
7.4.1 Surface recombination velocity 121
7.4.2 Emitter photocurrent 122
7.4.3 Base photocurrent 123
7.4.4 Space-charge-layer photocurrent 123
7.4.5 Total photocurrent 124
7.5 Photovoltage 126
7.5.1 Photovoltaic power 128
7.6 Non-silicon solar cells 131
7.6.1 Thin-film solar cells 131
7.6.2 Tandem-junction cells 132
7.7 Prospects for terrestrial photovoltaic power generation 133
Exercises 135
References 136
x Contents

8 Light-emitting diodes 138

8.1 Voltage efficiency 138
8.2 Current efficiency 140
8.2.1 Heterojunction diodes 141
8.3 Radiative recombination efficiency 142
8.4 Extraction efficiency 143
8.5 Wall-plug efficiency 146
8.6 Luminous efficacy and efficiency 146
8.7 White-light LEDs 147
8.8 Prospects for general-purpose solid-state lighting 149
Exercises 151
References 152

9 HBT basics 153

9.1 Basic properties 154
9.2 Collector current 156
9.3 Base current 161
9.3.1 Recombination in the base 162
9.3.2 Hole injection into the emitter 163
9.4 DC equivalent-circuit model 164
Exercises 166
References 168

10 MOSFET basics 169

10.1 Transfer characteristic 169
10.2 Electrostatics 173
10.2.1 MOS capacitor 173
10.2.2 MOSFET 175
10.3 MOSFET I-V characteristics from the surface-potential model 176
10.3.1 Surface potential 176
10.3.2 Drain current 179
10.3.3 Pinch-off and channel-length modulation 182
10.4 MOSFET I-V characteristics from the strong-inversion,
source-referenced model 182
10.4.1 Basic assumptions of the model 182
10.4.2 Drain current for constant mobility 183
10.4.3 Comparison of the surface-potential and SPICE models 185
10.4.4 Threshold voltage, body-effect coefficient and channel
charge density 185
10.4.5 I D when mobility is field-dependent 187
10.5 Sub-threshold current 189
10.6 Applying the long-channel models 190
 Contents xi

10.7 DC equivalent-circuit model 191

Exercises 192
References 193

11 HJFET basics 195

11.1 Schottky barrier 195
11.1.1 Thermionic emission and tunnelling 198
11.2 MESFET 199
11.2.1 Channel formation and threshold voltage 199
11.2.2 Drain current 200
11.3 HEMT 202
11.3.1 The 2-DEG 203
11.3.2 The finite well 205
11.3.3 Electron concentration in the 2-DEG 206
11.3.4 Controlling the channel charge by the gate potential 207
11.3.5 The drain I-V characteristic 208
Exercises 208
References 209

12 Transistor capacitances 210

12.1 Defining capacitance 210
12.2 MOSFET capacitance 213
12.2.1 Intrinsic MOSFET capacitances 213
12.2.2 Extrinsic MOSFET capacitances 217
12.3 HBT capacitance 217
12.3.1 Emitter-base junction capacitance 218
12.3.2 Base storage capacitance 219
12.3.3 Emitter storage capacitance 220
12.3.4 Base-emitter transit capacitance 220
12.3.5 Collector-base junction capacitance 222
Exercises 222
References 224

13 Transistors for high-speed logic 225

13.1 Si CMOS 225
13.1.1 General features of CMOS 225
13.1.2 The ON-current 227
13.1.3 Channel mobility and strain 229
13.1.4 Oxide capacitance and high-k dielectrics 232
13.1.5 Metal gates and poly-silicon capacitance 233
13.1.6 Gate leakage current 234
13.1.7 Threshold voltage: the short-channel effect 235
xii Contents

13.1.8 Threshold voltage: a quantum-mechanical effect 239

13.1.9 Silicon-on Insulator FET 240
13.1.10 Power dissipation 242
13.1.11 Large-signal equivalent-circuit model 245
13.2 Emitter-coupled logic 246
13.2.1 Large-signal equivalent-circuit model 247
Exercises 248
References 250

14 Transistors for high frequencies 251

14.1 Quasi-static analysis 251
14.2 The generic small-signal model 253
14.3 Hybrid-π small-signal model for HBTs 255
14.4 f T : the extrapolated unity-current-gain frequency 256
14.4.1 An expression for f T 257
14.5 Designing an HBT for high f T 259
14.5.1 SiGe HBT 260
14.6 f max : the extrapolated unity-power-gain frequency 262
14.6.1 Base-spreading resistance 264
14.7 f T and f max for FETs 266
14.7.1 f T 267
14.7.2 f max 268
14.8 Power gain, oscillation and stability 268
Exercises 269
References 271

15 Transistors for memories 273

15.1 Flash memory 273
15.2 Dynamic Random Access Memory 277
Exercises 280
References 280

16 Transistors for high power 281

16.1 Avalanche breakdown 281
16.2 The Kirk Effect 284
16.3 Transistors for power amplifiers 284
16.3.1 GaAs HBTs 285
16.3.2 GaN HJFETs 289
16.4 Transistors for high-voltage power supplies 292
16.4.1 Si L-DMOSFETs 293
16.4.2 Lateral insulated-gate bipolar transistor 294
Exercises 296
References 397
 Contents xiii

17 Transistors for low noise 299

17.1 Noise: general properties 299
17.2 Noise inherent to transistors 300
17.2.1 Thermal noise 300
17.2.2 Shot noise 301
17.2.3 Flicker noise 302
17.2.4 Induced gate noise 303
17.2.5 Adding-up the noise 304
17.3 Representation of noise in an equivalent circuit 304
17.4 Noise figure 306
17.4.1 Associated gain 307
Exercises 309
References 309

18 Transistors for the future 310

18.1 1-D carrier basics 311
18.1.1 Density of states 311
18.1.2 Carrier density 312
18.1.3 Mean, unidirectional velocity of a 1-D equilibrium distribution 313
18.2 1-D ballistic transport 314
18.2.1 Dimensions for current density 316
18.2.2 Local density of states 316
18.2.3 Evaluating the charge 316
18.3 Master set of equations for 1-D simulations 318
18.4 Comparison of 1-D and 2-D currents 319
18.4.1 Energy dissipation in ballistic transistors 321
18.5 Novel features of carbon nanotube FETs 321
18.5.1 Quantum capacitance and transconductance 322
18.5.2 Ambipolarity 323
Exercises 324
References 326

19 Appendices 327
19.1 Appendix A: Physical constants 327
19.2 Appendix B: Selected material properties 327
19.3 Appendix C: N-MOSFET parameters 329

Index 330
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