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Deleuze and World Cinemas

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Also available from Continuum:
Anti-Oedipus, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari
A Thousand Plateaus, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari
Cinema I, Gilles Deleuze
Cinema II, Gilles Deleuze
Difference and Repetition, Gilles Deleuze
The Fold, Gilles Deleuze
Foucault, Gilles Deleuze
Francis Bacon, Gilles Deleuze
Kant’s Critical Philosophy, Gilles Deleuze
Proust and Signs, Gilles Deleuze
Deleuze: A Guide for the Perplexed, Claire Colebrook
Deleuze and Guattari’s ‘Anti Oedipus’: A Reader’s Guide, Ian Buchanan
Deleuze and Guattari’s Philosophy of History, Jay Lampert
Deleuze and Ricoeur, Declan Sheerin
Deleuze and the Genesis of Representation, Joe Hughes
Deleuze and the Meaning of Life, Claire Colebrook
Deleuze and the Schizoanalysis of Cinema, Ian Buchan and
Patricia MacCormack
Deleuze and the Unconcious, Christian Kerslake
Deleuze, Guattari and the Production of the New, edited by Simon O’Sullivan
and Stephen Zepke
Deleuze’s ‘Difference and Repetition’: A Reader’s Guide, Joe Hughes
Gilles Deleuze: The Intensive Reduction, edited by Constantin V. Boundas
Kant, Deleuze and Architectonics, Edward Willatt
Thinking Between Deleuze and Kant, edited by Edward Willatt and Matt Lee
Who’s Afraid of Deleuze and Guattari?, Gregg Lambert
Deleuze and World Cinemas

David Martin-Jones
Continuum International Publishing Group
The Tower Building 80 Maiden Lane
11 York Road Suite 704
London SE1 7NX New York, NY 10038

© David Martin-Jones, 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: HB: 978-0-8264-1693-3

PB: 978-0-8264-3642-9

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Martin-Jones, David.
Deleuze and world cinemas / David Martin-Jones.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN: 978-0-8264-3642-9 (pbk.)
ISBN: 978-0-8264-1693-3 (hardback)
1. Motion pictures–Philosophy. 2. Motion pictures and globalization.
3. Deleuze, Gilles, 1925-1995–Criticism and interpretation. I. Title.

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 Contents

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction: Deterritorializing Deleuze 1

Spectacle I: Attraction-Image
Chapter 1 The Attraction-Image: From Georges Méliès to
the Spaghetti Western 23
Impossible Voyage (1904)
Django (1966)
Keoma (1976)

History: Deleuze After Dictatorship

Chapter 2 The Child seer in and as History: Argentine Melodrama 69
Kamchatka (2002)

Chapter 3 Folding and Unfolding History: South Korean Time

Travel Movies 100
Calla (1999)
Ditto (2000)
2009: Lost Memories (2002)

Space: Geopolitics and the Action-Image

Chapter 4 Not Just Any-space-whatever: Hong Kong and
the Global/Local Action-Image 133
Police Story (1985)

Chapter 5 Globalization’s Action Crystals: Los Angeles

in Michael Mann Blockbusters 162
Heat (1995)
Collateral (2004)
viii Contents

Spectacle II: Masala-Image

Chapter 6 The Masala-Image: Popular Indian (Bollywood) Cinema 201
Toofani Tarzan (1936)
Awaara (1951)
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995)

Conclusion: The Continuing Adventures of Deleuze and

World Cinemas 234

Notes 238
Select Bibliography 259
Index 265
 Acknowledgements

Sections of certain chapters have appeared before in earlier versions, and

are reprinted here in a more developed form. Parts of Chapter 1 were
published in: ‘Schizoanalysis, Spectacle and the Spaghetti Western’, in Ian
Buchanan and Patricia MacCormack (eds), Deleuze and the Schizoanalysis of
Cinema (Continuum, 2008). This work is reprinted with the kind permission
of The Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. Parts of Chapter 2
appeared in: ‘Towards Another ‘-Image’: Deleuze, Narrative Time and
Popular Indian Cinema’, Deleuze Studies 2: 1 (2008). This work is reprinted
with the kind permission of Ian Buchanan and Edinburgh University Press
http://www.eupjournals.com/journals/dis. Parts of Chapter 4 are contained
in ‘Decompressing Modernity: South Korean Time Travel Narratives and
the IMF Crisis’, by David Martin-Jones, from Cinema Journal, 46: 4, pp. 45-67.
Copyright © 2007 by the University of Texas Press. All rights reserved.
Thanks to Ian Buchanan for providing me with the inspiration to pick up
Deleuze again, and for sound advice generally. For providing extremely
helpful commentary on early drafts I owe immense gratitude to William
Brown, David Deamer and Kay Dickinson. Thank you to Beatriz Tadeo
Fuica, Alexia Cortés Maquieria, Yun-hua Chen and William Brown for fan-
tastic help with translations. I also thank the following people for innumer-
able informing debates about Deleuze and cinema since the 1990s. Antonio
Carlos Amorim, Martine Beugnet, Ronald Bogue, Robert Burgoyne, Edward
Branigan, Ian Buchanan, Yun-hua Chen, Felicity Colman, David Deamer,
Elena Del Rio, Dimitris Eleftheriotis, David Fleming, Daniel Frampton,
Colin Gardner, Amy Herzog, Matthew Holtmeier, Barbara Kennedy, András
Bálint Kovács, Robert Lapsley, Laura U. Marks, Patricia MacCormack, Bill
Marshall, Paola Monaldi, John Mullarkey, Serazer Pekerman, Patricia
Pisters, Anna Powell, Angelo Restivo, David Rodowick, Richard Rushton,
Steven Shaviro, Daniel W. Smith, David Sorfa, Damian Sutton, Sharon Tay
and Hunter Vaughan.
Thanks also to a number of friends who have helped me understand what
was at stake in the different cinemas I chose to discuss in this book: SooJeong
Ahn, Davie Archibald, Saër Maty Bâ, Canan Balan, Wai Yee Ruby Cheung,
x Acknowledgements

Andrew Dorman, Rajinder Kumar Dudrah, Elizabeth Ezra, Elisabetta Girelli,

Lee Grieveson, Mark Harris, Mette Hjort, Yun Mi Hwang, Dina Iordanova,
Hyangjin Lee, Tae Hun Lee, Karen Lury, Aaron Han Joon Magnan-Park,
Hamid Naficy, Gary Needham, Chi-Yun Shin, Julian Stringer, Rosie Thomas,
Leshu Torchin, Greg Tuck, Pasi Väliaho and Belén Vidal.
Thanks to my family, as always, for their invaluable support. Thanks to the
family Montañez Morillo, and most of all, thanks to Sol.

A note regarding names. Where appropriate, and especially in chapters 3

and 4, I render names with family name first followed by given name, except
where the name has been published or is widely known otherwise (such as
an author’s name, or a star like Jackie Chan, director like John Woo, etc.).
This is in order to respect the usual conventions related to scholarship on
Asian cinemas like those of Korea and China.
 Introduction

Deterritorializing Deleuze

Deleuze and World Cinemas uses different cinemas from around the world
to critically engage with Gilles Deleuze’s philosophical work on cinema.
It explores how Deleuze’s ideas can be refined, adapted and developed in
relation to films Deleuze did not examine, films that are viewed as products
of specific historical, cultural, aesthetic and industrial contexts. In this way
it provides a constructive critique of the Eurocentric conclusions that
Deleuze draws in Cinema 1 (1983) and Cinema 2 (1985). This critique applies
not only to the construction of his movement-image and time-image cate-
gories but also to the validity of this very distinction.
When considered in the current context of widespread global film pro-
duction and distribution, the primary focus of the Cinema books on films
from Europe and the USA now appears to provide a limited range of aes-
thetic examples with which to propose a seemingly universal consideration
of time. This is especially so because Deleuze’s approach to these cinemas
does not engage with their context of production and distribution, factors
now often considered crucial for an understanding of film aesthetics. For
this reason Deleuze and World Cinemas reconsiders Deleuze’s conclusions
by broadening the range of cinemas examined, both geographically and
historically. In each chapter Deleuze’s ideas are engaged with in relation to
a different cinema, demonstrating the need to reconsider Deleuze’s work
in various contexts, and thereby illuminating some of the major difficulties
with the Cinema books. For the purposes of this work, these difficulties are:
the relative nature of the formally defined movement-image/time-image
distinction (examined in chapters 1, 3 and 6 in particular); the Eurocentric
positioning of World War Two as the pivot on which the two image catego-
ries hinge (especially chapters 2 and 6); and the continued development of
the action-image under globalization, that further illustrates the relative, or
perhaps, arbitrary nature of the division between the two image categories
(chapters 3, 4 and 5). Thus Deleuze and World Cinemas does not set out to
2 Deleuze and World Cinemas

debunk the Cinema books, its very existence being evidence of the contem-
porary relevance of Deleuze’s ideas after all, but to demonstrate the contin-
ued usefulness of Deleuze’s work on cinema by reconsidering his conclusions
through contact with different cinemas from around the world.
As there are a number of books dedicated to explaining and interpreting
Deleuze’s philosophy in relation to cinema I will not explain the content of
Deleuze’s Cinema books here, instead providing detailed introductions to
the relevant concepts discussed in individual chapters. Rather, I will spend
the remainder of this introduction clarifying why a reinterpretation of
Deleuze’s Cinema books is necessary. The reasons are complex and inter-
twined, and primarily relate to the way in which we view the approach, content
and conclusions of Deleuze’s Cinema books. However, they are also informed
by the global context we now find ourselves in, in which the ever-increasing
availability and circulation of world cinemas can be considered a symptom
of the greater move towards globalization of trade since the 1970s (particu-
larly after the end of the Cold War); our enhanced knowledge of different
cinema histories; the emergence of a body of scholarship addressing various
world cinemas through Deleuze; the manner in which Deleuze’s ideas are
currently interpreted in the related but very different areas of Deleuze Stud-
ies and Film Studies; and the broader issue of Eurocentrism and cinema.

World Cinema or World Cinemas?

Approaching world cinemas, using Deleuze, requires care. To attempt to

validate Deleuze’s ideas through their application to films from around
the world would run the risk of imposing already Eurocentric conclusions
onto cinemas that belong to very different, context-specific cultures and
aesthetic traditions. This would be directly contrary to the methodology,
not to mention the spirit of the study of world cinemas, which acknowl-
edges precisely the aesthetic and cultural differences apparent in films from
around the world, even while often exploring their formal and generic
similarities and their circulation in the same spheres internationally.
Thus it is not the aim of this book to homogenize world cinemas, group-
ing together, for example, Argentine films with popular Indian movies
as though they were all peas from the same pod. Rather, I combine or, to
use a Deleuzian expression, assemble1 Deleuze’s ideas with a deliberately
diverse selection of films from different parts of the world, including exam-
ples from the nineteenth, twentieth and twenty-first centuries, in order to
 Introduction 3

constructively critique, offer ways to develop upon, rethink and reinterpret

Deleuze’s conclusions.
A more detailed synopsis concludes this introduction, but a brief over-
view of the book’s content here will help to clarify the different uses
these films are put to in critiquing Deleuze’s Cinema books. Chapter 1
explores cinematic spectacle in order to reconsider how we conceive of the
movement-image, and particularly Deleuze’s emphasis on montage (over
narrative) in his notion of the cinematic whole. Films discussed include
early silent movies by French filmmaker Georges Méliès (from the period
1895 to 1906/7 which Deleuze does not discuss in the Cinema books) and
European “spaghetti” westerns from the 1960s and 1970s. Two chapters on
history follow. Chapter 2 refines Deleuze’s discussion of the child as seer in
the time-image by exploring the construction of history in a contemporary
Argentine melodrama. Chapter 3 moves from a reconsideration of specific
aspects of the Cinema books to the central issue of whether the distinction
between movement-image and time-image is always valid, again in relation
to the cinematic construction of history, this time as seen in the enfolding
of the outside (the outside typically being a feature of the time-image) by
the whole (a characteristic of the movement-image) in South Korean
science fiction films. Chapters 4 and 5 consider filmic space. Chapter 4
analyses a Jackie Chan action movie from his days in Hong Kong to recon-
sider Deleuze’s concept of the cinematic any-space-whatever in terms of its
geopolitical function under globalization. Chapter 5 continues to explore
the any-space-whatever, discussing two of Michael Mann’s Hollywood block-
busters to uncover the incorporation of the crystal of time (again typically
found in the time-image) into the action-image. Finally, chapter 6 returns
to the issue of spectacle, discussing the existence of images that do not cor-
respond to either image category, that are found in popular Indian cinema
(or Bollywood cinema) from the 1930s to the 1990s. Thus various cinemas
from around the world are brought into contact with Deleuze’s ideas, the
very different assemblages these context-specific case studies enable trans-
forming his philosophy in the process.
Throughout this investigation I deploy the term “world cinemas”, rather
than “world cinema” to describe the plurality of cinemas that exist globally.
This fine distinction requires some explaining. Before we can discuss how
to productively analyse the vast entirety of cinemas that exist globally using
Deleuze (even leaving aside Deleuze it is questionable whether any single
book can do justice to the wealth of cinemas in existence), in what sense
should the term world cinemas be understood?
4 Deleuze and World Cinemas

The term world cinema is often considered to have an at best culturally

elitist, and at worst almost colonial connotation, due to its potential for
constructing an homogeneous Other out of very varied non-Western cine-
mas. As Stephanie Dennison and Song Hwee Lim note in their introduc-
tion to Remapping World Cinema (2006), as does Toby Miller in his preface
to Traditions in World Cinema (2006), the term is often applied like those of
“World Music” or “World Literature”2 to group together the many different
cinemas from outside of Europe and the USA as though, due to their
divergence or deviance from this artificially constructed norm, they create
an “ethnic” Other. Hence its very existence as a category serves to validate
the supposedly central presence of Western cinema globally (whether this
particular cinema-producing West is constructed as Europe and the USA,
or simply Hollywood), and in this sense a “World Cinema” section in a DVD
retail or rental outlet might be considered to homogenize different cine-
mas in an Orientalist manner.
Even so, the complexities of the context in which works of world cinema
are produced, distributed and consumed suggest that everything may not
be this clear cut. This is an industrial context still dominated by Hollywood,
but in which the film industries of Nigeria and India (Nollywood and
Bollywood respectively) produce the largest number of films annually, and
the widespread and in fact long-standing practice of transnational copro-
ductions increasingly blurs the boundaries between “powerful” and “lesser”
national cinemas. Thus, for every argument that acceptance into the pan-
theon of world cinema is a form of (patronizing) Western exoticizing, or
cynical and often extremely selective appropriation, there is always a coun-
ter-argument for the benefits of global exposure that filmmakers from
smaller film-producing nations enjoy when their works are lauded inter-
nationally as works of world cinema. Indeed, many of these filmmakers may
consider themselves savvy players in this global market, perhaps deliber-
ately self-exoticizing in order to appeal to (or at least conform to) Western
perceptions of Other cinemas (the practice of auto-ethnography not neces-
sarily being considered an entirely negative one from all perspectives3) to
gain international acknowledgement for their work.
Accordingly, the term world cinema has gained a more positive connotation
through a certain usage. For example, Dina Iordanova explores ‘the dynam-
ics of world cinema’ in a deliberate attempt to focus attention away from
Hollywood, and onto the “rest” of cinematic production worldwide; ques-
tioning in the process the very nature of global film production’s assumed
centres and peripheries.4 Alternatively, Lúcia Nagib attempts to positively
redefine world cinema as a means of decentring ‘Hollywood and the West’
 Introduction 5

from their assumed role at ‘the centre of film history’, favouring instead an
all-inclusive model of world cinema (including Hollywood) without centre,
or indeed, ‘single beginning’.5 Following Nagib, world cinema should not
be considered to refer to a minority of film production beyond the Western
mainstream. Rather, the Western mainstream needs to be reconsidered as
a part of the much broader production that constitutes the overarching
totality of the cinemas of the world.
When global cinematic production is viewed in this way, the term world
cinemas captures something of its plural nature, and avoids the connota-
tions of a singular entity associated with world cinema. Therefore, for the
purposes of this study, despite its problematic widespread economic and,
arguably, ideological dominance, Hollywood is considered one more player
(albeit a very dominant one) alongside myriad cinemas of varying scale
and influence. In this I follow Nagib who advocates the repositioning of
Hollywood as ‘a cinema among others’.6 The positioning of my discussion
of Mann’s films in the penultimate chapter is deliberate, then, in order
to avoid granting them a normative position from which to assess the
supposed deviation of the Other (or perhaps more accurately, “Othered”)
cinemas under discussion.

Using Deleuze with World Cinemas

With cinema increasingly considered a transnational or global phenome-

non (something it is possible to argue that it has been since the early
decades of cinema), so too does Deleuze’s work on cinema become both
increasingly applicable globally and yet also in need of reconsideration in
different contexts. Put in Deleuzian terms, as the global rhizome of world
cinemas is increasingly understood in relation to its de/reterritorialized
flows, so too must Deleuze’s ideas depart on their travels, becoming de/
reterritorialized themselves whenever they encounter films in new contexts.
Accordingly, while I engage with the transnational dimension of these films
(in particular their appeal to international audiences), the book retains a
major focus on their context-specific identities in relation to their respec-
tive and often very different national cinemas, histories, cultures and aes-
thetic traditions.
For this reason, my approach is different from the rapidly expanding body
of Deleuze-inspired work on modern political or minor cinema, which
draws on arguments he outlines in the closing chapters of Cinema 2.7 Minor
cinema has the potential to destratify cinema from its national territory and
6 Deleuze and World Cinemas

cross national boundaries: for instance, in diasporic or exilic cinemas, as

developed in the works of Laura U. Marks and Hamid Naficy on ‘intercul-
tural’ and ‘accented’ cinemas respectively.8 The question raised by minor
cinema is how filmmakers attempt to construct a memory of the future for
a people yet to come (as Deleuze identified the process) when previously
established centre/periphery, major/minor positions no longer hold in
quite the same manner under globalization as they did previously. This
is the case even if these people yet to come are still engaged with the lega-
cies of recent histories of postcolonialism, neo-colonial regimes, Cold War
dictatorships, civil rights movements, etc.
I take a different tack, then, in that I consider films from specific contexts
(while retaining a focus on their transnational dimensions), whether or not
these are minor cinemas. There are two reasons for this. First, as Dudley
Andrew rightly notes as part of a broader discussion of the different ways in
which it is possible to map world cinema, ‘Deleuze’s notions of “smooth
nomadic space” founder when one looks at deeply “rooted” cultures.’9 As
Andrew’s discussion of Nigerian filmmaking suggests, there is as much to
be gained by exploring the location-embedded specifics of certain cinemas
as there is from mapping cinema’s transnational flows. Put another way, the
rhizome of world cinemas should be considered as a gradually spreading
forest in which each tree contains its own roots and branches, but which
should still be taken as an interconnected multiplicity (forest) rather than
a collection of autonomous sovereign nation-states (trees). Secondly, in
line with the decentred repositioning of Hollywood that I take from Nagib,
I focus on the mainstream and the popular in a way that an emphasis on
minor cinema might not necessarily allow. This stresses the continued
importance of the dominant forms of the movement-image as they appear
differently around the world (European westerns, Argentine melodramas,
South Korean science fiction films, Hong Kong action movies, Hollywood
blockbusters) for our understanding of the continued relevance of Deleuze’s
work in a global context.
Therefore, although the title Deleuze and World Cinemas may seem sugges-
tive of a book that attempts a Eurocentric exposition of Deleuze’s work in
Other contexts, in fact, a close reading of these films in their contexts of
production shows them resistant to such a reading. When I state that the
global nature of world cinemas enables a global application of Deleuze’s
ideas, then, I mean this in the very specific sense that the global spread of
cinemas around the world both facilitates and necessitates a reinterpreta-
tion of the Cinema books.
 Introduction 7

In this way I hope to intercede in the ongoing debate as to whether we

can legitimately use Deleuze with Other, or Othered cinemas, in particular
those absent from the Cinema books. In Deleuze and World Cinemas I demon-
strate that, in fact, this approach is absolutely necessary if Deleuze’s theo-
ries are to have continued currency in relation to the globally widespread
phenomenon of cinema. As I have noted already, I do not think that we
should impose Deleuze’s ideas on films from other parts of the world,
thereby perpetuating the Eurocentric conclusions of the Cinema books that
it is my aim to constructively critique herein. However, by both exploring
the advantages and rethinking the limitations of Deleuze’s work through
productive assemblages with these Othered cinemas, we can reinvigorate
his ideas and broaden their scope for future usage in the field. I would go
so far as to contend that perhaps it is only in this manner that we can save
Deleuze’s work on cinema from a far less productive repetition of the same,
in which we may be tempted to follow Deleuze in favouring the time-image
with a degree of greater philosophical complexity than the movement-
image and weighing our research in its favour accordingly. In its worst
excesses this approach can produce questionable acts of homage that per-
petually reaffirm Deleuze’s conclusions, often by using similar films, drawn
from the same geographical areas he himself discussed. Instead, going
beyond Deleuze’s choice of filmic examples to rethink his conclusions may
be seen as the natural extension of his own philosophical project. After all,
who is to say how far Deleuze would have gone in his thinking regarding
cinema had he had the access to the films we have today?
As no one book can cover the entire output of a world of cinemas I have
formulated Deleuze and World Cinemas in such a way as to enable me to explore
three concepts in relation to Deleuze’s work – the cinematic construction of
spectacle, history and space, all of which exist in the mainstream of analysis
in Film Studies – using the clearest and most dispersive examples from my
mental databank of world cinemas. Although personal choices, the films
I analyse are not disparate, isolated examples, but different shaped pieces of
the same global jigsaw of world cinemas. Undoubtedly scholars with differ-
ent specialisms and interests would provide alternative mappings of this
interlocking territory, yet to my mind this only demonstrates more keenly
the need for further work in this manner.
Admittedly I am far from the first to consider various world cinemas fair
game for a Deleuzian analysis. For instance, Deleuze’s ideas have already
been used to examine the films of Senegalese directors Ousmane Sembène
and Djibril Diop Mambéty as works of minor cinema (by D. N. Rodowick
8 Deleuze and World Cinemas

and Patricia Pisters respectively10); of directors from various countries in

Asia (as one for instance Wong Kar-wai (Hong Kong))11 or indeed entire
film movements like New Iranian Cinema.12 There are a growing number of
other such examples. This does not mean, however, that I, or these authors,
are unaware of the difficulties this potentially throws up. Just as those
working on representations of gender in African or Iranian films are those
most likely to be aware of both the potential and the difficulties that theo-
ries like psychoanalysis pose in different contexts (as seen in the works of
Kenneth W. Harrow on African, or Naficy on Iranian films13), so too are
the scholars working with Deleuze in Other or Othered cinematic contexts
usually attuned to the difficulties this raises. In many cases the existing
engagement of Deleuze’s work with world cinemas has involved an explora-
tion, as opposed to an assumption, of the applicability of Deleuze’s ideas
to different contexts, while in others it has entailed a more direct reconsid-
eration of Deleuze’s conclusions (still perhaps most engagingly in Marks’s
The Skin of the Film (2000)).
The important point this growing body of work demonstrates is that, even
if different or Othered films have the potential to challenge theory (be it
psychoanalysis, Deleuze’s philosophy, etc.), we should not therefore simply
give up on such theoretical approaches altogether. Rather, it is precisely
because Othered films can “talk back” to existing theories that they are
incredibly useful for helping us to understand the strengths and limitations
of theoretical works like Deleuze’s Cinema books. Thus it is worth exploring
films that illustrate how, even once the noticeable aesthetic and cultural
differences informing many cinemas have been taken into account,
Deleuze’s ideas offer new and challenging ways of thinking about world
cinemas. As this book demonstrates, numerous world cinemas enable us
to both reconsider Deleuze’s philosophical conclusions and expand our
understanding of cinema beyond Eurocentric confines.

Deleuze Studies/Film Studies

In Film Studies, work on Deleuze and cinema has recently begun to gather
momentum. In his contribution to François Dosse and Jean-Michel Frodon’s
edited collection, Gilles Deleuze et les images (2008), Andrew recently identified
the emergence of three generations of Deleuze-inspired scholars active in the
1990s and 2000s, solely in Anglo-American Film Studies.14 The attendance
at recent conferences of researchers pursuing similar lines of inquiry from
various international locations illustrates that this is a global phenomenon.
 Introduction 9

During this period the experience of many scholars working with Deleuze
and Film Studies was often felt to be that of a somewhat marginalized, at
times embattled minority position within the discipline. Now things are
changing, and the spread of Deleuzian studies of cinema is starting to be
seen as somewhat akin to psychoanalysis was previously, if not in that it is
threatening to become the dominant theoretical paradigm in the discipline,
then at the very least in as much as it is a recognizable framework used by
an increasing number of scholars to explore film.
Conversely, within the interdisciplinary field that has rapidly become
known as Deleuze Studies, the position taken on Deleuze by some scholars
from within Film Studies is at times met with puzzlement. Ironically, while
some researchers in Deleuze Studies may wonder what is so wrong with
Deleuze’s Cinema books that they require this degree of critique, scholars
in Film Studies will often challenge what is so right about them in the first
place.
My position, then, overlaps these two fields. From within Film Studies I
apply some of the contextual analysis expected of Film Studies scholarship
to Deleuze’s work, and opens it up to world cinemas. Simultaneously, how-
ever, while working with the other foot in Deleuze Studies, I put Deleuze’s
ideas into productive assemblages with those of other scholars, albeit work-
ing on cinema rather than philosophy, in order to productively transform
them. In both instances the aim is to further an understanding of both the
theory and the films in question in the hope that it will increase the longev-
ity of Deleuze’s ideas regarding cinema. The inevitable consequence of this
is the transformation of certain of Deleuze’s ideas.
I believe that the major value of this research lies in the constructive
critique it can offer of Deleuze’s Eurocentric conclusions regarding time
that he derives from a selective analysis of cinema. To pursue this direction
requires a reconsideration of Deleuze’s often ahistorical analysis of films, in
which my contextualizing approach is more typical of Film Studies. How-
ever, in a way that is perhaps more familiar to those in Deleuze Studies,
I also believe that my manner of working with Deleuze’s ideas is akin to that
which he himself advocated. His books on numerous other philosophers,
for example, contain an element of creative re-interpretation that could
equally be considered an interpretive critique and development of their
works, the example most relevant here being Deleuze’s engagement with
Henri Bergson in the Cinema books. Indeed, by engaging with different
or as yet “unknown” cinemas (albeit to many viewers worldwide these are
“normal” cinemas), is to engage in, as Deleuze argues in Difference and
Repetition (1968), the process of writing ‘at the frontiers of our knowledge,
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