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Trust Analytic and Applied Perspectives 1st Edition
Pekka Mäkelä Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Pekka Mäkelä; Cynthia Townley
ISBN(s): 9789401209410, 9401209413
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 2.18 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
TRUST
 VIBS

Volume 263

Robert Ginsberg
Founding Editor

Leonidas Donskis
Executive Editor

Associate Editors

G. John M. Abbarno Steven V. Hicks

George Allan Richard T. Hull
Gerhold K. Becker Michael Krausz
Raymond Angelo Belliotti Olli Loukola
Kenneth A. Bryson Mark Letteri
C. Stephen Byrum Vincent L. Luizzi
Robert A. Delfino Hugh P. McDonald
Rem B. Edwards Adrianne McEvoy
Malcolm D. Evans J.D. Mininger
Roland Faber Peter A. Redpath
Andrew Fitz-Gibbon Arleen L. F. Salles
Francesc Forn i Argimon John R. Shook
Daniel B. Gallagher Eddy Souffrant
William C. Gay Tuija Takala
Dane R. Gordon Emil Višňovský
J. Everet Green Anne Waters
Heta Aleksandra Gylling James R. Watson
Matti Häyry John R. Welch
Brian G. Henning Thomas Woods

a volume in
Nordic Value Studies
NVS
Edited by Matti Häyry, The University of Manchester
 TRUST
Analytic and Applied Perspectives

Edited by
Pekka Mäkelä and Cynthia Townley

Amsterdam - New York, NY 2013

Cover photo: www.dreamstime.com

Cover Design: Studio Pollmann

The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO
9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents -
Requirements for permanence”.

ISBN: 978-90-420-3680-2
E-Book ISBN: 978-94-012-0941-0
© Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam - New York, NY 2013
Printed in the Netherlands
 CONTENTS

Editors’ Introduction vii

ONE Trust, Trustworthiness, and Responsibility

Floora Ruokonen 1
1. Trust as Encapsulated Interest 2
2. Hardin’s Analysis of Trustworthiness 2
3. Trust as Entrusting 5
4. Trust as an Affective Attitude 5
5. Components of Trustworthiness 6
6. From Competence, Trust-responsiveness,
and Goodwill to Responsibility 8
7. Trust and Responsibility 10
8. A Strong Account of Trust and Trustworthiness 11

TWO Trusting Interpretations

Karen Jones 15
1. Trust and Interpretation 16
2. Trust and Trusting Interpretations 25

THREE Trust in Wittgenstein

Olli Lagerspetz and Lars Hertzberg 31
1. On Psychological Expressions 32
2. The Use of “Trust” 36
3. Certainty and Evidence 43
4. Summary 49

FOUR A Trust-Based Argument Against Paternalism

Simon Clarke 53
1. The Trust Argument 55
2. Justifying the Trust Condition 58
3. Is it Reasonable to Trust Paternalistic Government? 64
4. Conclusion 73
FIVE Trust and Risky Secrets
Timo Airaksinen 77
1. Dangerous Mistrust 77
2. The Risks of Shared Secrets 78
3. The Risks of Trust 81
4. Undisclosed Secrets and Social Power 83
5. Lost Secrets:
A Pro-Surveillance Argument as a Test Case 92

SIX Public Trust

Cynthia Townley and Jay L. Garfield 95
1. Trust, Reliance and Reactive Attitudes 96
2. Institutions and Trust 100
3. Why Public Trust is Important 102
4. The Limits of Trust 103
5. Modernity, Community, and Trust 106

SEVEN Can You Buy Trustworthiness?

Vittorio Pelligra 109
1. The Birth of a Market 110
2. Trust, Trustworthiness, and Incentive 111
3. The Experiment 113
4. Market for Trustworthiness? 116
5. Conclusions 117

EIGHT Desire for Esteem as Reason for Trust?

Pekka Mäkelä 119
1. The Notion of Trust 120
2. Mechanisms of Trustworthiness:
Loyalty, Virtue, and Prudence 123
3. Trust-responsiveness Mechanism 124
4. Discussion 126

NINE Trust in Nature and Trust in People:

Necessity, Care, and Rightness
Per Ariansen 131

About the Contributors 143

Index 147
 EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION
Pekka Mäkelä and Cynthia Townley

The importance of trust can hardly be overstated. Trust is significant in a

multitude of human practices, and studied in a range of disciplines. “Whatever
matters to human beings, trust is the atmosphere in which it thrives” writes
Sissela Bok (Bok, 1978, p. 31n). Although trust is ubiquitous, understanding
trust is a non-trivial challenge.
Philosophical studies of trust have usually followed Annette Baier’s
seminal 1986 paper “Trust and Antitrust,” by taking paradigm cases to be
those of one person trusting another, often in intimate, cooperative contexts.
Much less philosophical work has examined trust in institutional and more
generally impersonal contexts of modern societies. These latter domains of
trust are important, not only for their inherent interest, but also because they
form the backdrop and climate against which intimate trust relationships take
place, and hence they condition at least some interpersonal trust.
Outside of philosophy, trust is often treated as a broad, relatively
undifferentiated, social phenomenon. It is common, for example, to hear that
modern societies are seriously deficient in trust, because of alienation and/or
increasing social change. Social institutions are increasingly disconnected
from people’s everyday concerns, and thus less able to supply people with
meaningful orientation and reliable systems of support. Some social scientists
regard the accelerating pace of social change as one of the defining features of
a modernity in which the very idea of society as a set of stable institutions and
clear boundaries and tasks has come into question. Increasing trust may be a
solution to broad social challenges, as trust is considered critical to both social
integration through cooperation and to people’s well-being. A significant body
of empirical research has been used to support such claims as trust helps to
solve large scale collective action dilemmas, trust furthers economic growth
and prosperity, trust makes democracy work better, and trust is an enabling
condition of the institutions of the welfare state. Many philosophers agree that
a society where people are disposed to be trusting, and where their trust is
generally well placed, is almost certain to work more harmoniously and
fruitfully than a society where trust fails to appear or spread. (See e.g. Hardin,
1993; Gambetta, 1988).
Despite the increasing interest in and the growing amount of research on
trust, there still is a gap between much of the theoretical and conceptual work
on trust taking place within philosophy, and the empirical studies of social
scientists. Much of the recent empirical work on trust – be it based on surveys
or experiments – does not seem to proceed from a clear account of what is
meant by trust in the first place. Trust is sometimes discussed as if it
viii Pekka Mäkelä and Cynthia Townley

encompasses any and all forms of social cooperation and interdependence.

While trust is a pervasive social phenomenon, it is useful to distinguish
between different notions of trust, and especially between reliance and
stronger, moral notions of trust. This is not merely a matter of theoretical
precision: there are distinct risks and benefits associated with different kinds
of dependence, and different ways to manage the risks and cultivate the
beneficial dimensions of cooperation, in public as well as intimate contexts.
Diverse forms of constructive cooperation include but are not limited to trust.
Different ways of understanding trust can have direct implications for
institutional design. If there are intangible and non-fungible components of
trust relationships, then these will be difficult to capture in simple cost-benefit
analyses. Since trust and reliability are complex and interacting phenomena,
bolstering compliance in some areas may undermine trustful interactions in
other ways. It is important to be clear about the characteristics of trust, about
the conditions favorable for the prevalence of trust, and about the reasons why
people might withhold trust or invest trust in one another and in the
institutions of their society.
It is challenging to provide a characterization of trust that will suit all
contexts and phenomena. Trust comes in different forms, whether between
intimates, larger groups or institutions, and trust phenomena differ in various
ways from other kinds of cooperation and dependence. A standard, although
not uncontested, way to distinguish trust from other kinds of dependence
appeals to the trustee’s motivation. Roughly, trust proper involves good will,
or something similar (in other words, the emphasis is on the moral motivation
of a trustee) and non-trust reliance emphasizes a cooperator’s capacities to
behave in the expected manner, and the likelihood of her so behaving
(motivation matters less than competence and predictability). In this
collection, Floora Ruokonen examines and defends such a distinction that is
taken up in later papers, most prominently those by Timo Airaksinen, Simon
Clarke and Cynthia Townley and Jay Garfield.
The distinction between trust (proper) and (trust as) reliance need not
reduce trust to a simple cognitivism, exclusively focused on beliefs,
judgments or expectations about the trustworthiness of the other. Richer
accounts of trust acknowledge the relevance of affective and conative
attitudes, as well as its cognitive dimensions. The papers in this volume by
Karen Jones and by Olli Lagerspetz and Lars Hertzberg exemplify these richer
accounts of trust.
Social cooperation requires both trust and systems of accountability.
Institutions, public and private, are entrusted with care for goods that are of
value to society as a whole, but at the same time, managing such complex
organizations often, and perhaps necessarily, involves incentives and
checkable procedures. Two papers deal directly with the tensions that can
arise between regulative frameworks and the good will and intrinsic values of
cooperation. Townley and Garfield apply a trust/reliance distinction to
 Editors’ Introduction ix

institutions of public trust, distinguishing the conditions for each to thrive.

Institutions such as universities incorporate checkable reliance systems and
intrinsic values such as integrity and academic freedom. Trust may not be
replaced by reliance, in part because monitoring is costly, and because
excessive monitoring can corrode integrity and commitment, which trust,
conversely can enhance. A related phenomenon is shown empirically in a
study of responses to a child-care center’s introduction of a late fee. The
charge fails to motivate the desired behavior: it appears to reduce instead of
increase the parents’ tendency to collect children on time. Vittorio Pelligra
argues that one reason is that the introduction of a financial penalty has
replaced a trustful expectation. This experiment gives empirical support to the
view that trust is important and distinctive domain of social cooperation, not
only worth preserving for its own sake, but also because alternatives may be
more, not less, costly. This result might be explained in terms of a framing-
effect, the introduction of the material rewards leads to a reframing of the
situation, as a fiduciary relation is reframed as a market relation. This is an
important result in light of institutional design in general, and in light of the
trend of marketization in particular.
Trust appears to be a good thing, something to be promoted, from almost
every conceivable evaluative perspective. Thus, it is no wonder that the
questions concerning generation of trust, maintenance of the atmosphere of
trust, and reasons for trust should be and are considered of utmost relevance
and importance in different trust related discussions and debates. For instance,
from the point of view of institutional design these questions are most
pressing. If institutional design aims at furthering and developing well-
functioning society and at promoting the good ends of the society, and if trust
is a constituent ingredient and/or a necessary facilitating condition of such
societies, then the question of how to generate and maintain trust should be
one of the core issues in the field of institutional design. Pekka Mäkelä’s
paper discusses one trust generating mechanism introduced by Philip Pettit.
Roughly, Mäkelä criticizes Pettit’s analysis of a trust-responsiveness
mechanism arguing that such a mechanism does not provide a promising
grounding for socially desirable and robust proper trust-relationships. Like the
result of Pelligra’s experiment, Mäkelä’s conclusion is relevant for social
planning aiming at the increase of social capital and well-being.
Lagerspetz and Hertzberg draw on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s work to
enhance, and perhaps challenge standard philosophical understandings of the
concept of trust. Building on Wittgenstein’s discussion of psychological
expressions they claim that by invoking the language of trust and betrayal, we
do not simply identify facts out there. Instead we invoke a certain perspective.
We are invited to see someone’s behavior in a certain light. The question to
ask here is “what is the role, in human interaction, of speaking about trust?”
Lagerspetz and Hertzberg criticize the current analyses of trust for having
been shaped by the faulty assumption that our grasp on reality is ultimately to
x Pekka Mäkelä and Cynthia Townley

be spelled out in terms of factual assertions. They argue for a non-reductive

understanding of trust. According to their view, in many cases the trust we
have for another individual will ground the beliefs we come to form, instead
of the other way around.
Such a view is supported by psychoanalysts Kenneth S. Isaacs, and
Ernest A. Haggard (Isaacs, Alexander and Haggard, 1963) who claim that
trusting and non-trusting persons live in different worlds. It appears, further,
that a trusting person can see more opportunities to flourish in the world than
a person lacking trust. However, it is not quite clear whether trust is a matter
of a worldview. Jones argues that when viewed with trust the world looks
different from how it looks when viewed with distrust or neutrality, and this
difference matters for both practical and theoretical rationality by way of
shaping our reasons for action and belief. Jones illuminates the relationship
between trust and interpretation: does trust give rise to trusting interpretations,
do the interpretations give rise to trust, or is the relation constitutive? Jones
argues for the claim that the relation between trust and interpretation is both
constitutive and causal.
Considering trust and institutions raises the question of how power
differences can affect trust. Airaksinen explores responsibility and power in
contexts of secrets and trust. He points out that a secret may require mutual
trust from the owner and hearer of the secret. Institutions with requirements
for disclosure include those concerned with medical treatment, and Airaksinen
argues that a benevolent institution must trust its clients, and allow them
secrets. When the power difference is reversed, the trust that citizens may
have in authority or government is quite different.
Clarke is also directly interested in citizens’ trust of government. He
applies the good will element of trust to the justification for trusting
government, specifically one that engages in coercive moral paternalism.
Joseph Raz has argued that coercive moral paternalism is problematic because
it undermines the conditions for reasonable trust, and such trust would be
required if that paternalism were to be justified. Clarke presents a distinct
analysis of coercive moral paternalism, concluding, like Raz, but for different
reasons, that it is problematic. Governments will rarely if ever achieve the
conditions that would permit trust in their paternalism to be reasonable.
The most radical extension of the concept of trust occurs in Per
Ariansen’s study of our usage of “trust” and of the functioning of the concept
in the context of nature as well as human relationships. The notion of trust is
illuminated in terms of interplay of the notions of trust, trustworthiness,
trustability and dependability. Dependability is identified as the notion at the
core of trustability (counterpart of trustworthiness in non-human contexts) and
trustworthiness. Ariansen distinguishes between different kinds of
dependability grounding or, in part, constituting trustworthiness or trustability.
Trustworthiness of a person can be constituted by either a dependability
grounded on the necessity that arguably characterizes mechanisms of nature,
 Editors’ Introduction xi

or a dependability grounded on free will related to agential features of the

person. Ariansen uses this analysis of trust to discuss the crisis of trust in
science caused by environmental problems.
The papers in this volume address critical and analytical issues of
trust. Collectively, the papers both address and extend discussions about trust
taking place both within philosophy and in the public domain, with particular
attention to institutional trust, and trust that involves social roles. The first
three papers in the book offer general characterizations of trust, from a
perspective more conceptual than applied. The remaining (six) papers
consider trust in practical contexts ranging from the public sphere broadly
understood to particular social institutions, such as universities and medical
care.
The collection as a whole explores what kind of good trust is, what kind
of goods it can protect and how it can bring about goods, and develops subtle
distinctions between trust and other virtues, and between trust and other forms
of dependence.
The complexity of trust and the multiplicity of values associated with
trust and mechanisms for its cultivation are evident in the collection as a
whole. The pluralism of the collection reflects the diversity of real world
contexts and theoretical perspectives indispensable in the search of deeper
understanding of trust. Without such an understanding of the nature of trust
and the good reasons why people might trust one another or the institutions,
we are in danger of designing institutions that will reduce trust or even drive it
out. The significance of trust to social institutions and the public sphere, is far
from exhausted by this the collection. These papers explore different aspects
of trust, both analytically, and as pertaining to important social institutions and
the public sphere. Trust: Analytic and Applied Perspectives aims at shedding
new light on the intersecting dimensions of our social cooperation, in which
both trust and reliance can be responsibly undertaken.

Pekka Mäkelä
Cynthia Townley

WORKS CITED

Baier, Annette. (1986). “Trust and Antitrust,” Ethics, 96:2 (January), pp. 231–260.
Bok, Sissela. (1978). Lying. New York: Pantheon Books.
Isaacs, Kenneth S., James M. Alexander and Ernest A. Haggard. (1963). “Faith, Trust,
and Gullibility,” International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 44:4, pp. 461–469.
Gambetta, Diego. (1988). Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations, Oxford,
England: Blackwell.
Hardin, Russell. (1993). “The Street-Level Epistemology of Trust,” Politics and
xii Pekka Mäkelä and Cynthia Townley

Society, 21:4 (December), pp. 505–529.

Raz, Joseph. (1986). The Morality of Freedom, Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
 One

TRUST, TRUSTWORTHINESS,
AND RESPONSIBILITY
Floora Ruokonen

Introduction

Is trust an inherently moral notion? Or does trust have a morally neutral core,
so that it has both moral and morally neutral forms? What about
trustworthiness: if trust is a moral notion, is trustworthiness likewise, or is its
moral status independent of that of trust? I will argue here for the benefits of
understanding both trust and trustworthiness as moral notions. The argument
is based on an analysis of trust, which places holding someone morally
responsible for something at its core.
Three claims by Russell Hardin prompt these questions. First, Hardin
claims that in current literature on trust the most central conceptions are of
trustworthiness instead of trust (e.g., Hardin, 1991, p. 186; 1996, p. 28; 2006,
p. 16). Second, he states that there might be a moral approbation that goes
with trustworthiness but trust is fully explicable (Hardin, 1996, p. 28; 2002, p.
36). Third, he maintains that that if we want to increase the amount of trust in
society, we should promote trustworthiness (Hardin, 2002, p. 30). In light of
these statements, understanding the conditions of trustworthiness appears
absolutely pivotal for a study of trust. However, when studying Hardin’s own
account of trustworthiness one soon runs into the problem that although he
claims that there might be a moral approbation associated with
trustworthiness, his account does not explain this approbation save for some
distinct forms of trustworthiness. I will therefore shortly introduce two
different kinds of accounts of trust to see whether they can do better in this
respect. My claim is that they can. Then I suggest that a further account of
trust, built on the notion of moral responsibility, can be drawn from some
salient features of trustworthiness pointed out by these accounts. Against
Hardin’s insistence that analyses of trust based on character dispositions or
emotions of the trustee are too restrictive to be useful tools for explicating the
workings of trust in interpersonal behavior and social institutions (Hardin,
2006, pp. 16, 26), I claim that morally grounded expectations of
trustworthiness should be distinguished from other forms of reliance.
Otherwise we might, for example, accidentally end up destroying trust
relationships by misguided attempts to enhance trustworthiness. I begin by
2 FLOORA RUOKONEN

introducing Hardin’s analysis of trust and the account of trustworthiness

arising from it.
1. Trust as Encapsulated Interest

In Hardin’s theory of “trust as encapsulated interest” trust is seen as an

intentional relation, the rational analysis of which must depend on the
rationality of both the trustor and the trustee and on the commitments of the
trustee (Hardin, 1991, p. 189). According to the theory, trust is essentially a
set of expectations that depend on rational assessments of the trustee’s
motivations (ibid., p. 187). The most common motivating facts assessed by
the trustor are the interests of the trustee, hence the name of the theory.
Trust as encapsulated interest can be analyzed in the following way:

(TEI): A trusts that B does X in circumstances C if

(1) A expects that B does X in circumstances C, and
(2) A’s expectation (1) is grounded on A’s rational assessment of
B’s motivations.

According to this analysis, trust is reducible to A’s rationally grounded beliefs

about B’s behavior, and these beliefs are grounded on an assessment of B’s
contingent motivations. In other words, the analysis does not make any
particular motivational orientation a necessary condition for trust. As a result,
the analysis is non-normative.
According to Hardin, the theory purports to be a descriptively adequate
analysis of trust, an analysis that is true to the everyday use of the term
“trust.” He claims that the term can be used in a wide range of trust-situations.
This would mean that I am speaking of trust in just the same sense, whether I
am that I trust that my friend’s advice to me is genuinely based on her
thinking of my best interest, or I trust the justice system of my country, or that
I trust my competitor for a position to vilify me in front of the board.

2. Hardin’s Analysis of Trustworthiness

Hardin thinks it strange that so many theorists worried about changes in

society claim that their worries concern trust. According to him, they are
usually, against their testimony, discussing trustworthiness instead of trust,
and quite rightly so. If we are worried about the decline of trust in society, we
should investigate trustworthiness, since trustworthiness creates trust (Hardin,
2002, p. 30).
In the encapsulated-interest account, “trustworthiness is just the capacity
to judge one’s interests as dependent on doing what one is trusted to do”
(Hardin, 2002, p. 28). The emphasis in Hardin’s account of trustworthiness is
on sticking to promises or expected actions. His examples are of the following
kind: what would make us think that somebody who forswears love forever is
 Trust, Trustworthiness, and Responsibility 3

trustworthy?; how do I ensure you that you will pay me for your purchase of
my car?; or, what would make us believe that somebody who leaves the
society in order to live in a convent stays with her decision? Answers to these
questions, according to Hardin, indicate ways of creating trustworthiness.
In Hardin’s opinion, there is little point in exploring the direct willing of
trustworthiness, that is, purely internal commitment to future action. There are
indirect ways of “willing,” devices that can be called into action for making
ourselves trustworthy in some matters. These devices are largely external,
provided by social controls. They range from small-scale controls of ongoing
relationships with those near us to large-scale controls of the law and other
pervasive social institutions, with “mixed” devices, such as broad social
norms and religious controls in between (Hardin, 1996, p. 31).
Of institutional constraints that can be used to create trustworthiness,
Hardin’s primary example is contract law. He regards it as an almost ideal
type of institutional oversight that controls individual commitments.
Economic relations between individuals are especially well governed by
contracts when compared with many other types of relations. Furthermore,
there is “great trustworthiness in contracts because performance is easy to
assess and enforcement is relatively easy” (Hardin, 1996, p. 34). Here
contracts differ from such arrangements as, for example, marriage where,
according to Hardin “there is far less trustworthiness (. . .) in many societies
and times, because performance is too hard to measure to make enforcement
work” (ibid.).
When it comes to creating trustworthiness, the most effective social
conventions are, according to Hardin, also simply stated, easily monitored and
sanctioned, and relatively stable (Hardin, 1996, p. 38). The example of
Ukifune in Lady Murasaki’s Tale of Genji is used to illuminate the working of
such conventions (with or without the support of law) (ibid., pp. 35–36).
Ukifune decides to shirk from making difficult decisions in her love life by
entering a convent. The commitment to leave the court and enter a convent is
sealed by the cutting of Ukifune’s six feet long hair that it has taken her all life
to grow. The convention is easily stated: “cut your hair and there is no coming
back to the world of court.” Adherence to the convention is easily monitored,
since a person leaving the convent without hair would instantly be noticed,
and sanctioning would be easy, since everyone at the court would immediately
shun Ukifune on her return. Finally, the convention is stable, since it has
existed before and will exist after the life of Ukifune. The convention of
cutting the hair is thus in Ukifune’s society one that secures her commitment
of leaving the court quite effectively, and would by Hardin’s account of
trustworthiness have made her extremely trustworthy in her decision to leave
the court.
The example shows that Hardin’s analysis of trustworthiness is built on
his analysis of trust. If trust is based on rational expectations concerning the
motivational set of the trustee, making oneself trustworthy in the eyes of
4 FLOORA RUOKONEN

others amounts to successful communication of a motivation to fulfill the trust

placed on one. The most effective way of communicating one’s motivation to
fulfill the trust placed on one is organizing one’s circumstances so that it will
be evident to the potential trustor that it is in the trustee’s interests to act in the
expected way.
Remembering Hardin’s claim that there might be a moral approbation
that goes with trustworthiness, but without which trust is fully explicable, it is
interesting that the above examples of making oneself trustworthy do not
explain such approbation. In his account of trustworthiness he does mention
the morality of others as one possible reason to believe that they are
trustworthy (Hardin, 2002, pp. 36, 52), but this does not account for some
kind of moral approbation going with trustworthiness in general. It might be
assumed that since contract breaking is prima facie believed to be wrong,
there is an implicit moral demand of trustworthiness. Hardin, however, also
thinks that although probably widespread, moral dispositions are relatively
thin and unreliable for the vast number of relations people have with others
whose moral character is not sufficiently well known to be judged reliable
(Hardin, 2002, p. 53). We can perfectly rationally believe that other people are
trustworthy, even if it would be irrational to rely on their morality. In Hardin’s
account, we are just as justified in talking about trustworthiness when we
believe the one we trust would act in the expected way even if there were no
contract or norm to secure the commitment, or we believe that she would not
do so, were it not for the contract or norm. In both cases there are reasons to
believe that the trustee is motivated to act in the expected way. So we are back
with the morally neutral analysis of trust.
I think many people would intuitively claim that there is a relevant
difference in the above two cases, and this difference makes it more justified
to attribute trustworthiness to the first instead of to the second person. Many
are also ready to claim that the difference has something to do with morality.
Theorists who advocate a more exclusive notion of trust refer with the word
“reliance” to dependence grounded on external motivations such as legal
contracts or norms with sanctions, and seek to distinguish it from “trust.”
Trust has something to do with morality whereas reliance does not. One way
to point at the difference between mere reliance and trust proper is to refer to
the difference in the emotions aroused by breaches of trust and reliance. A
breach of trust is met with the feeling of being betrayed, whereas
“disappointment” is a better word for describing the emotion associated with
misplaced reliance. An adequate analysis of trust should be able to explain this
difference. What is it about trust that makes us susceptible, in the case of it
being breached, to the reactive attitude of feeling betrayed?
It appears that to explain this reaction to breaches of trust we need more
exclusive accounts of trust and trustworthiness than those Hardin offers. I will
next briefly introduce Annette Baier’s theory of trust as entrusting and then
Karen Jones’s affective-attitude theory. Then, following the leads given by
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Geology - Course Outline
Third 2024 - Division

Prepared by: Instructor Brown

Date: August 12, 2025

Introduction 1: Comparative analysis and synthesis

Learning Objective 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 5: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Lesson 2: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 10: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 15: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 17: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 19: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Topic 3: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 28: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 4: Ethical considerations and implications
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 34: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 36: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 5: Learning outcomes and objectives
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 42: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 43: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 46: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 6: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 51: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 59: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 7: Best practices and recommendations
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 66: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 66: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 8: Experimental procedures and results
Practice Problem 70: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 71: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 75: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 77: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 78: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 79: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Exercise 9: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Practice Problem 80: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 89: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 10: Study tips and learning strategies
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 91: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 92: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 96: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 100: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 11: Fundamental concepts and principles
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 104: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 107: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 12: Fundamental concepts and principles
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 111: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 112: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 115: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 117: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 117: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 13: Interdisciplinary approaches
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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