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i

Beyond 1917
ii
iii

Beyond 1917
The United States and the
Global Legacies of the Great War

Edited by
Thomas W. Zeiler, David K. Ekbladh,
and Benjamin C. Montoya

1
iv

1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​060400–​4 (hbk)
ISBN 978–0–19–060401–1 (pbk)

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
v

To Leah, Haley, and Rocio

vi
vi

Contents

Acknowledgments ix
Contributors xi

Introduction: Legacies 1
David K. Ekbladh

Timeline of World War I and Its Legacies 9

Benjamin C. Montoya

PART 1 HISTORIANS: WRITING,

LEGACIES, MEMORIES
1. The Historiographic Impact of the Great War 23
Akira Iriye

2. The War as History: Writing the Economic and Social

History of the First World War 36
Katharina Rietzler

3. The World War and American Memory 54

John Milton Cooper, Jr.

P A R T 2 T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S :
A SOCIETY INTERVENES
4. Blinking Eyes Began to Open: Legacies from America’s
Road to the Great War, 1914–​1917 69
Michael S. Neiberg
vi

viii  Contents

5. Ambivalent Ally: American Military Intervention and the Legacy

of World War I 85
Michael Adas

6. Legacies for Citizenship: Pinpointing Americans during and

after World War I 106
Christopher Capozzola

7. Taming Total War: Great War–​Era American Humanitarianism

and Its Legacies 122
Julia Irwin

8. To Make the World Saved: American Religion and the Great War 140
Andrew Preston

PART 3 AMERICA IN THE WORLD: EMPIRE,

REVOLUTION, AND POWER
9. The Geopolitics of Revolution 159
Lloyd C. Gardner

10. From Sideshow to Center Stage: Legacies of the Great War

(and Peace?) in the Middle East 182
Matthew Jacobs

11. The Great War as a Global War: Imperial Conflict and the
Reconfiguration of World Order, 1911–​1923 196
Robert Gerwarth and Erez Manela

12. The Great War, Wilsonianism, and the Challenges to US Empire 213
Emily S. Rosenberg

13. War-​Depression-​War: The Fatal Sequence in a Global Perspective 232

Dietmar Rothermund

14. World War I, the Rise of Hitler, and the Legacy of Dictatorship 248
Klaus Schwabe

15. International Law and World War I: A Pivotal Turn 266

Hatsue Shinohara

Bibliography 283
Index 313
ix

Acknowledgments

The editors would like to thank the contributors to this volume, many
of whom bore with us as we asked for repeated revisions to their
chapters and other materials. We must single out James McAllister
and Carrie Greene at Williams College for sponsoring the confer-
ence, “World War I Legacies” on April 18–​19, 2014, out of which this
volume arose. Their hospitality, organization, good cheer, and firm
hand were essential to our success, and Williams was a perfect set-
ting for academic interchange. The commentaries and discussions
at each panel were so fruitful and exciting that we decided to move
forward with this book. In addition to the authors, we wish to thank
the following participants at that conference: Anthony Adamthwaite,
Daniel Gorman, Gretchen Heefner, David Mayers, Nicole Phelps, and
Anders Stephanson. Thanks also to the journal Diplomatic History for
permission to reprint the articles from the September 2014 issue.
Susan Ferber at Oxford University Press has overseen the production
of this volume with her typical keen eye and wise advice. We certainly
appreciate the support of our home institutions—​the Department of
History at the University of Colorado Boulder, and the Department
of History at Tufts University. We were fortunate to have the timely
support provided by the Faculty Research Awards Committee of Tufts
University.
x
xi

Contributors

EDITORS

Thomas W. Zeiler is Professor of History and Director of the Program

in International Affairs at the University of Colorado Boulder. Recent
publications include Annihilation: A Global Military History of World
War II (2011). He is the former editor of the journal Diplomatic History
and president (2012) of the Society for Historians of American Foreign
Relations.

David K. Ekbladh is Associate Professor of History and Core Faculty

in International Relations at Tufts University. His first book, The
Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an
American World Order (2010), won the Stuart L. Bernath Prize of the
Society of American Historians as well as the Phi Alpha Theta Best
First Book Award. Articles of his have appeared in Diplomatic History,
the International History Review, International Security, World Affairs,
and the Wilson Quarterly.

Benjamin C. Montoya earned his Ph.D. at the University of Colorado

Boulder in 2015. His dissertation, entitled Risking “Immeasurable
Harm”: The Diplomacy of Immigration Restriction in U.S.-​ Mexico
Relations, 1924 to 1932, considers how American efforts to place a
quota on Mexican immigration affected foreign policy between the
two nations. He teaches for the Program in International Affairs and
the Department of History at the University of Colorado Boulder.
xi

xii  Contributors

CONTRIBUTORS

Michael Adas is the Emeritus Abraham E. Voorhees Professor and Board of

Governors Chair at Rutgers University. His recent publications on compara-
tive history have focused on great power military interventions in the post-
colonial world, including a forthcoming book from Oxford University Press,
Everyman in Vietnam: A Soldier’s Journey into the Quagmire, coauthored with
Joseph Gilch.

Christopher Capozzola is Associate Professor of History at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology. He is the author of Uncle Sam Wants You: World War
I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen (Oxford University Press,
2008). He is a cocurator of “The Volunteers: Americans Join World War I,”
a public history project about American civilians who volunteered in Europe
during and after the First World War.

John Milton Cooper, Jr., is E. Gordon Fox Professor of American Institutions,

emeritus, at the University of Wisconsin-​Madison. He is the author and editor
of several books on the World War I era, and he served on the Editorial Advisory
Committee to the Papers of Woodrow Wilson.

Lloyd Gardner is Professor Emeritus at Rutgers University. He is the author of

over fifteen books in the field of American diplomatic history, including Safe
for Democracy: The Anglo-​American Response to Revolution, 1913–​1923 and, most
recently, The War on Leakers: National Security and American Democracy from
Eugene Debs to Edward Snowden.

Robert Gerwarth is Professor of Modern History at University College Dublin

and Director of UCD’s Centre for War Studies. He specializes on the history
of political violence in late nineteenth and early twentieth-​century Europe. His
most recent monograph is The Vanquished: Why the First World War Failed to
End (2016).

Akira Iriye is Charles Warren Professor of American History, emeritus,

Harvard University. He has also taught at the University of Chicago, University
of Rochester, and the University of California, Santa Cruz. His recent publica-
tions include Cultural Internationalism and World Order (1997), International
and Transnational History (2014), and (as editor) Global Interdependence: The
World since 1945 (2013).

Julia Irwin is an Associate Professor of History at the University of South

Florida. Her research focuses on the role of humanitarianism and foreign
aid in twentieth-​century US foreign relations. She is the author of Making the
World Safe: The American Red Cross and a Nation’s Humanitarian Awakening
xi

Contributors  xiii

(Oxford University Press, 2013) and is now working on a second book project,
Catastrophic Diplomacy: A History of U.S. Responses to Global Natural Disaster.

Matthew F. Jacobs is Associate Professor of US and International History at the

University of Florida, where he teaches courses on US–​Middle East relations,
the Vietnam War, US foreign relations, the world since 1945, and international
studies. He earned his Ph.D. in history at the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill in 2002, and his first book, Imagining the Middle East: The Building
of an American Foreign Policy, 1918–​1967, was published by the University of
North Carolina Press in 2011.

Erez Manela is Professor of History at Harvard University, where he teaches

international history and the history of the United States in the world. His most
recent book, Empires at War, 1911–​23 (2014), coedited with Robert Gerwarth, has
been translated into seven languages. His other books include the prizewin-
ning The Wilsonian Moment: Self-​Determination and the International Origins of
Anticolonial Nationalism (2007) and (as coeditor) The Shock of the Global: The
1970s in Perspective (2010).

Michael S. Neiberg is the inaugural Chair of War Studies at the United States
Army War College. He is the author of Dance of the Furies: Europe and the
Outbreak of World War I (Harvard University Press, 2011), which the Wall Street
Journal recently named it one of the five best books ever written about the war,
and The Path to War: How the First World War Created Modern America (Oxford
University Press, 2016).

Andrew Preston is Professor of American History and a Fellow of Clare College

at Cambridge University. He is the author of The War Council: McGeorge Bundy,
the NSC, and Vietnam (Harvard University Press, 2006) and Sword of the Spirit,
Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (Knopf, 2012), as well
as the editor of four other books.

Katharina Rietzler teaches history at the University of Sussex, England. Her

work has appeared in the Journal of Global History, Diplomatic History, Diplomacy
& Statecraft, and Historical Research. She is currently completing a transnational
history of internationalism and American philanthropy in the first half of the
twentieth century.

Emily S. Rosenberg, a former chair of history at the University of California,

Irvine, now emeritus, is the author of Transnational Currents in a Shrinking
World, 1870–​1945, a book published from her edited volume, A World
Connecting: 1870–​1945 (Harvard University Press, 2012). Other books include
Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion,
vxi

xiv  Contributors

1890–​1945; Financial Missionaries to the World: The Politics and Culture of Dollar
Diplomacy, 1900–​1930; and A Date Which Will Live: Pearl Harbor in American
Memory. She has served as president of the Society for Historians of American
Foreign Relations, and coedited the American Encounters, Global Interactions
series for Duke University Press.

Dietmar Rothermund is Professor Emeritus of South Asian History at the

University of Heidelberg, Germany. A member of the Royal Historical Society
in London since 1988, he has published Government, Landlord and Peasant in
India (1978), India in the Great Depression (1992), India: The Rise of an Asian
Giant (2008), and A History of India (with H. Kulke) (sixth ed., 2016).

Klaus Schwabe is a retired professor of modern history at the Technical

University—​RWTH—​at Aachen, Germany. His publications encompass inter-
national and German-​American relations in the twentieth century, in particular
in the era of World War I and the period of the Cold War. In 2011 a third printing
of his history of America’s foreign relations in the twentieth century appeared
(Weltmacht und Weltordnung). At present, he is preparing a brief German-​
language biography of Jean Monnet.

Hatsue Shinohara received her doctorate from the University of Chicago

and is a professor at the Graduate School of Asia-​Pacific Studies, Waseda
University in Tokyo. She is the author of US International Lawyers in the
Interwar Years: A Forgotten Crusade (Cambridge University Press, 2012) and
“Drift towards an Empire? The Trajectory of American Reformers in the Cold
War,” in International Law and Empire: Historical Explorations, edited by Martti
Koskenniemi, Walter Rech, and Manuel Jiménez Fonseca (Oxford University
Press, forthcoming).
xv

Beyond 1917
xvi
1

Introduction
Legacies

David K. Ekbladh

World War I blasted scars in the earth and onto human societies but
it also left indelible marks on our understanding of time. The conflict
and the years that surround it now mark departures into sweeping
eras as well of pivotal historical change. Staple concepts that divvy
up recent epochs, such as the “long nineteenth century” and the
“short twentieth century,” hinge on that war. As the architect of those
periods, Eric Hobsbawm, noted, “if there are dates which are more
than conveniences for purposes of periodization, August 1914 is one
of them.”1 For other influential scholars, the gestation of the mod-
ern world is bounded by the ominous date of 1914.2 The importance
of these dates is not limited to scholarship, however. In important
respects, our understanding of the world today rests on the legacies
of World War I.
A massively destructive and transformative event, the First
World War left innumerable wounds in its wake. A sign that the war
is something our present is compelled to understand, yet struggles
to grasp, is that it is still passionately debated. What is not disputed
is that a crisis brought by the assassination of an Austrian Archduke
in Sarajevo in today’s Bosnia (then a part of the Austro-​Hungarian
Empire) brought a collision of the European powers in the summer
of 1914. The resulting conflagration led to a long struggle that even-
tually swept in empires, states, and peoples from North America,
Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The brutal intensity of the conflict,
in part a product of the scientific and technological advances and the
capacities of modern industry when bent to warfare, stunned par-
ticipants at the time and still has the ability to shock in the present.
2

2  David K. Ekbladh

When the war officially ended on November 11, 1918, there were still aftershocks
to endure. The peace hammered out at Versailles did codify a victory but it
did not assure peace. In the years following the war many parts of the world
were wracked by disease, dislocation, revolution, and civil war that were direct
results of the conflict that began in 1914. For many the war and what followed
became a catastrophic upheaval that marked a dramatic departure for states,
societies, individuals, and the modern world itself.
That the First World War has become an integral milepost for human his-
tory is a reflection of the importance of the conflict, the forces that led to it, and
the forces it unleashed. The legacies generated by the war left tension, pain, and
sometimes hope but they have never been static. Rather, they have been a shift-
ing set of experiences, lessons, interpretations, and costs left by an unparalleled
global war. Generations have grappled with these questions, interpreting and
reinterpreting their changing meanings that come with the passage of time.
The influence of this activity extends/has extended far beyond the cloisters of
academia. World War I remains a very real, and sometimes painful, fixture in
contemporary global politics and society. Critical aspects of international affairs
touch emotionally charged legacies that remain live wires. Just one gruesome
segment of the war, the Armenian genocide, retained the power to generate
moving commemorations as well as produce diplomatic sparks between states
as the Great War’s centennial progressed.3
The war itself was terrible enough. The Great War’s clash of mass armies
generated changes that still echo on today’s battlefields. Unparalleled combat
demanded innovations that brought the sustained use of rapid-firing artillery,
poison gas, aircraft in combat (and the bombardment of civilians from the air),
submarines, tanks, machine guns, and aircraft carriers as well as the mod-
ern medical techniques to patch, literally, scarred faces, mutilated bodies, and
“shell shocked” psyches for which these innovations were responsible. Total
war’s influence reached far beyond the battlefield and bled into societies that
had been fully mobilized for the struggle. Conscription, pacifism, militarism,
humanitarian, and socialist movements reshaped politics within countries and
global affairs during the war and for decades to come. Governments learned
the value of modern propaganda techniques, both in print and in film. Societies
were changed in far-​reaching ways: women were emancipated in some coun-
tries and citizenship was fundamentally altered in many places.
Globally, aristocracy and monarchies went into decline. Empires were
smashed. In Europe, Germany, Austria-​Hungary, and Russia disintegrated
under the demands of modern war and popular unrest. In the Middle East,
the collapse of the Ottoman Empire was epoch-making. Those empires
that survived—​Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States—​were
3

Introduction  3

profoundly altered. So were whole continents. Europe, the Middle East,

Africa, and Asia saw territories traded, boundaries redrawn, and new states
emerge during the conflict and its aftermath, redrawing the cartography of
international life in ways that can still be seen and felt today.
Of course, roots of an even more horrific conflict, the Second World War,
lay, in part, in the First World War. Elements of the toxic conditions that led to
that disaster were stirred up by the shockwaves of the Great War. In the war’s
wake, fascism and communism gained traction as movements; mass migra-
tion reshaped many regions; independence for places like Ireland, Turkey, and
the Baltic states pointed to the Janus-​faced power of nationalism; militarism
in Japan and elsewhere became more palatable; and an influenza pandemic
that still serves a chilling warning for disease outbreaks shook already trem-
bling societies. Closer to home, even as there was a slowdown in the process
of liberal globalization, the United States moved from a historical position
from debtor to creditor, a condition that heralded the rise of Wall Street and
American economic dominance. A widely accepted lesson of the war was that
any peace would have to be worldwide. That set many on a mission to establish
an international organization committed to collective security. That errand con-
tinues into the twenty-​first century.
These are just some reminders that perhaps no conflict’s legacies are more
visible that those of the First World War. Its traumas are evident on all sorts
of terrain, and not all are physical. Red poppies pop up around the globe for
Remembrance Days in the Commonwealth of Nations to recall the human
costs sustained by the British Empire. The long tradition of monument con-
struction continues in the present. In 2014, France dedicated a massive new
memorial to the war dead from across its former empire. Empire assured that
places seemingly remote from the major theaters of action felt the war directly.
British dominions like Australia and New Zealand sent large contingents that
suffered fearful casualties relative to their populations. These losses served to
solidify emerging senses of nationhood in both places and remain integral to
national narratives. Australians marked the centenary of the war with a slew of
exhibits and remembrances that even focus on specific battles. Just one seg-
ment of the 1916 Somme campaign, the Battle of Pozières where Australians
played an outsized and bloody part, was honored in numerous ways. During
commemorations in July 2016 a national prime-​time television broadcast of
the ceremony remembering those slain in France was matched by individual
acts of placing fresh flowers at the alcove marking the campaign at the ANZAC
monument in Sydney, the National War Memorial in Canberra, and elsewhere
around the country. Investing the wider public in the memory of the war is
a goal of these commemorations. To this end, one of the many New Zealand
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