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Commonwealth of Letters
Modernist Literature & Culture
Kevin J. H. Dettmar & Mark Wollaeger, Series Editors

Consuming Traditions Unseasonable Youth

Elizabeth Outka Jed Esty
Machine Age Comedy World Views
Michael North Jon Hegglund
The Art of Scandal Americanizing Britain
Sean Latham Genevieve Abravanel
The Hypothetical Mandarin Modernism and the New Spain
Eric Hayot Gayle Rogers
Nations of Nothing But Poetry At the Violet Hour
Matthew Hart Sarah Cole
Modernism & Copyright Fictions of Autonomy
Paul K. Saint-Amour Andrew Goldstone
Accented America The Great American Songbooks
Joshua L. Miller T. Austin Graham
Criminal Ingenuity Without Copyrights
Ellen Levy Robert Spoo
Modernism’s Mythic Pose The Degenerate Muse
Carrie J. Preston Robin Schulze
Pragmatic Modernism Commonwealth of Letters
Lisa Schoenbach Peter J. Kalliney
Commonwealth
of Letters
British Literary Culture and the
Emergence of Postcolonial Aesthetics

Peter J. Kalliney

3
3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide.

Oxford New York

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With offices in
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South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press

in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by

Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016

© Oxford University Press 2013

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior
permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law,
by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization.
Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the
Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kalliney, Peter J., 1971–
Commonwealth of letters : British literary culture and the emergence of
postcolonial aesthetics / Peter J. Kalliney.
pages cm. — (Modernist Literature & Culture ; 20)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–19–997797–0 (hardcover : acid-free paper) — ISBN 978–0–19–997798–7 (ebook)
1. Postcolonialism in literature. 2. Modernism (Literature) 3. Commonwealth literature
(English)—History and criticism. 4. Literature—Philosophy. I. Title.
PN56.P555K35 2013
809´.93358—dc23 2012050992

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of
America on acid-free paper
 Contents

Series Editors’ Foreword vii

Acknowledgments xi

1. Modernist Networks and Late Colonial Intellectuals 1

2. Race and Modernist Anthologies: Nancy Cunard,
Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, Ezra Pound 38
3. For Continuity: FR Leavis, Kamau Brathwaite,
and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o 75
4. Metropolitan Modernism and Its West Indian Interlocutors 116
5. Developing Fictions: Amos Tutuola at Faber and Faber 146
6. Metropolitan Publisher as Postcolonial Clearinghouse: The African
Writers Series 178
7. Jean Rhys: Left Bank Modernist as Postcolonial Intellectual 218
Conclusion: Postcolonial Writing or Global Literature in English? 245

Notes 259
Bibliography 287
Index 307
This page intentionally left blank
 Series Editors’ Foreword

All of us, in our personal and professional lives, rely more than we care to admit
on placeholders of some kind or another. Received ideas, after all, make it possible
to advance without repeatedly reinventing the wheel. Most students of modern-
ism, for instance, are probably pretty confident that F. R. Leavis was a reactionary
whose emphasis on close reading eliminated politics from literary analysis, just as
students of postcolonial literature are likely comfortable in the belief that politi-
cally engaged postcolonial writers were profoundly hostile to high modernism’s
doctrine of aesthetic autonomy. Sure, a lot of Caribbean poets might have been
drawn to T. S. Eliot, but the attraction lay only in the modernity of his idiom,
which in the hands of Kamau Brathwaite or Derek Walcott could be turned, hav-
ing been rendered politically subversive through the alchemy of minority con-
sciousness, against the metropolitan master.
And then a powerful revisionary account comes along to reveal the partiality (in
every sense) of what we thought we knew. Such is Peter Kalliney’s Commonwealth
of Letters. Dominant narratives are rarely completely wrong or they wouldn’t have
taken hold in the first place; but if you think you understand what Leavis “means”
to the history of literary study, you probably don’t. Kalliney is more politic: with-
out simply dismissing the partial understandings that have guided a great deal of
scholarship, he draws on extensive archival work to offer a stunning new account of
the role of racial competition and collaboration during the hinge period between
metropolitan modernism and postcolonial literature.
The broader argument is this: professional networks established by interwar
modernists in London welcomed and encouraged the efforts of colonial émigrés in
the midcentury as a way to rejuvenate a literary culture increasingly stigmatized as

vii
viii SERIES EDITORS’ FOREWORD

lifeless by metropolitan commentators in the post-World War II wake of modern-

ism. This outward turn can be considered a dialectical companion to the inward
turn toward Englishness described by Jed Esty in A Shrinking Island.
Émigré writers had their own reasons not only for collaborating with what
remained of the London avant-garde but also for adopting some of the key tenets
of metropolitan modernism: the desire to gain access to London’s cultural institu-
tions, such as the BBC, went hand in hand, Kalliney argues, with an investment in
aesthetic autonomy. Indeed, in Kalliney’s words, “black Atlantic writers were the
twentieth century’s most eloquent and committed defenders of aesthetic auton-
omy.” Why? “Nonwhite, non-metropolitan writers were drawn to the conception
that cultural institutions could be exempt from the systems of racial and political
hierarchy operative elsewhere.” Eliot’s theory that a genuine work of art rises above
the mundane biographical particularities of its creator thus held great appeal for
colonial writers, “who hoped their art would transcend the kind of racial barriers
that exasperated African American writers working in the U.S.” Thus if London’s
midcentury modernists, like late imperial adventurers seeking vitality at the
periphery of “civilization,” sought an infusion of aesthetic energy from colonial
émigrés, late colonial and early postcolonial intellectuals had at least as much to
gain by adapting high modernist discourse to their own needs.
One can imagine a triumphalist version of this narrative in which modernism
is shown to be more important and influential than disrespectful postmodern-
ists and postcolonial critics have been willing to admit; but Kalliney’s approach is
admirably balanced in the way it restores a sense of the collaborative professional
networks that placed late colonial and early postcolonial writers on an equal foot-
ing in 1950s London. Metropolitan snobbery, cultural imperialism, and racism,
Kalliney acknowledges, were all important features of postwar British literary cul-
ture, but Commonwealth of Letters shifts the emphasis toward the strategic use
colonial writers could make of the London literary scene and the equally strategic
use the literary establishment could make of exciting new writers in its struggle to
compete with New York and Paris for cultural capital (hence the nod to Pascale
Casanova in Kalliney’s title).
Sadly, this space of collaboration did not last. Kalliney argues that we should
look at postwar literary culture in the Anglophone world—especially in London—
as a brief moment when exchanges, collaborations, and partnerships were possible
between the aging generation of modernist gatekeepers and a new generation of
colonial and decolonizing writers and intellectuals. By the 1970s, the discourse of
comparison by which white and black writers were judged against one another as
writers, regardless of political differences, gave way to the more polarized scene we
 SERIES EDITORS’ FOREWORD ix

know today, with modernists typically on one side, postcolonial writers and critics
on the other. Kalliney provides a fresh way to grasp the fields together.
To return to Kalliney’s surprising and entirely persuasive account of Leavis: we
are reminded that even as Leavis rightly considered himself a dissident in relation
to dominant forms of literary study, his insurgency aimed to make the English
Department assert its rightful place at the heart of the University. Connecting
Leavis’s ambivalence with later efforts by Kamau Brathwaite and Ngũgĩ wa
Thiong’o to reform the literary curriculum, Kalliney points out that “this particu-
lar form of minority discourse—in which the misunderstood, uncompromising
intellectual fashions himself as both scourge and savior of the university and the
discipline—would be one of the major bequests from Leavis to postcolonial theory
by way of the great tradition.” The legacy of Leavis’s ambivalence, one could say,
was structural.
Commonwealth of Letters ranges widely over postwar Anglophone literature,
offering bold revisionary accounts and incisive close readings of major work
by Ngũgĩ, Brathwaite, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, Nancy Cunard, Amos
Tutuola, Jean Rhys, V. S. Naipaul, George Lamming, Sam Selvon, and Wilson
Harris. Drawing on the unpublished correspondence of many of these authors
and providing a new institutional history of the emergence of postcolonial aesthet-
ics, Kalliney challenges students of modernism and postcolonial studies to rethink
longstanding assumptions that have shaped their fields, and perhaps to rediscover
a collaborative ethos that can all too easily dissolve amid the competitive crosscur-
rents of our profession.
—Mark Wollaeger and Kevin J. H. Dettmar
This page intentionally left blank
 Acknowledgments

I have incurred many debts as I researched and wrote this book. Several institu-
tions directly supported my research: the University of Kentucky with grants and
release time, the National Endowment for the Humanities with two wonderful
fellowships, and the John W Kluge Center at the Library of Congress by offer-
ing a visiting research position during a sabbatical. I had the luxury of consult-
ing the collections, and working with the staff, at many libraries and archives:
the BBC Written Archives Centre in Caversham, where Monica Thapar was
extremely helpful; the Beinecke Library at Yale University; Cadbury Research
Library: Special Collections, University of Birmingham; the George Padmore
Institute, where Sarah Garrod and Sarah White were hospitable and resource-
ful in equal measures; the Library of Congress; Veerle Poupeye, at the National
Gallery of Jamaica; the Harry Ransom Center, at the University of Texas, where
Thomas Staley and Richard Workman went above and beyond the call of duty;
Jean Rose, at Random House; and the University of Kentucky library, especially
Shawn Livingston. I discussed various parts of the project with many individu-
als in the University of Kentucky’s English department and Social Theory group:
Jonathan Allison, Jacqueline Couti, Jeff Clymer, Rynetta Davis, Andy Doolen,
Mike Genovese, Matt Giancarlo, Pearl James, Julia Johnson, Alan Nadel, Joe
O’Neil, Jeremy Popkin, Jill Rappoport, Ellen Rosenman, Marion Rust, Leon Sachs,
Michelle Sizemore, and the graduate students with whom I have worked. Michael
Trask deserves special mention as a thoughtful reader. Elsewhere, I have benefited
from conversations with Apollo Amoko, Claire Bowen, Jeremy Braddock, Kamau
Brathwaite, Sarah Brophy, Sarah Brouillette, Mary Lou Emery, Alan Friedman,
Tom Guglielmo, Wilson Harris, Allan Hepburn, Emily Hyde, Aaron Jaffe, Sean

xi
xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Latham, Ben Lee, Marina MacKay, John Marx, Pablo Mitchell, Frank Pike, Leah
Rosenberg, Elaine Savory, Urmila Seshagiri, Anne Walmsley, and Tim Watson.
Guidance from Bernth Lindfors was particularly helpful at a crucial stage. Simon
Gikandi, Jim English, and Patsy Yaeger have been the most faithful and gener-
ous of mentors. At Oxford University Press, I am grateful to two smart readers,
whose comments made this a better book; to Shannon McLachlan, for helping
me navigate archival checkpoints; to Mary Jo Rhodes and Patterson Lamb for
their proofreading and production work; and to Brendan O’Neill, for his edito-
rial staying power and good cheer. Kevin Dettmar and Mark Wollaeger put their
faith in this project when it was little more than a grant proposal. Abby Tripp and
Katherine Osborne were fantastic research assistants. For any stylistic lapses and
factual errors, of course, I have only myself to hold responsible. Rachida Ouchaou,
Malika Nims, and Moulay Ahmed El Amrani helped turn southern Morocco into
a writer’s haven. And finally, my warmest feelings of gratitude are reserved for my
family, whose unstinting generosity has left me with debts that continue to accu-
mulate: thanks go to my parents, Elizabeth Edmunds Kalliney and Sami Yousef
Kalliney, whose parenting I try to emulate; to Karen Rignall, whose intelligence
and patient encouragement I will always cherish; and to Nedjma and Zaydan, our
children, whose infectious laughter and impish creativity made my life away from
work better than I could have imagined.

Permissions

The author has made every effort to obtain permission to present all materials
entitled to copyright protection. Several sections of this book have appeared pre-
viously, in somewhat different form, and are reproduced with permission. Part
of Chapter 4 appeared in PMLA 122.1 (2007) as “Metropolitan Modernism and
Its West Indian Interlocutors: 1950s London and the Emergence of Postcolonial
Literature,” here reprinted by permission of the Modern Language Association.
Other sections of Chapter 4 appeared as “The Novel’s West Indian Revolution” in
The Cambridge History of the English Novel, edited by Robert L Caserio and Clement
Hawes, Copyright © 2012 Cambridge University Press, reprinted with permission.
An earlier version of Chapter 7 appeared as “Jean Rhys: Left Bank Modernist as
Postcolonial Intellectual” in The Oxford Handbook of Global Modernisms (2012),
edited by Mark Wollaeger with Matt Eatough. Quotations from Roy Fuller are
reproduced with the permission of the author’s estate. Passages from Anne
Walmsley’s unpublished interviews with Diana Athill, Kamau Brathwaite, Frank
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii

Pike, and Andrew Salkey are printed with the permission of Anne Walmsley and
the interviewees or their estates. Passages from unpublished letters by Kamau
Brathwaite are presented with his permission. Quotations from unpublished let-
ters written by Cedric Lindo and Henry Swanzy are presented with permission
of the BBC. Permission to quote from unpublished letters by Claude McKay is
granted by his estate. Permission to quote from unpublished letters and other
material by Nancy Cunard is granted by her estate. Quotations from an unpub-
lished letter by Amos Tutuola are Copyright Estate of Amos Tutuola and printed
with permission. Passages from “I, Too” are from The Collected Poems of Langston
Hughes by Langston Hughes, edited by Arnold Rampersad with David Roessel,
Associate Editor, copyright © 1994 by the Estate of Langston Hughes. Used by per-
mission of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc., and Harold Ober
Associates Incorporated. Any third party use of this material, outside of this publi-
cation, is prohibited. Interested parties must apply directly to Random House, Inc.
for permission. Permission to quote from an unpublished letter from Langston
Hughes is granted by Harold Ober Associates Incorporated. Passages from unpub-
lished letters by Ezra Pound are Copyright © 2013 by Mary de Rachewiltz and
the Estate of Omar S. Pound. Used by permission of New Directions Publishing
Corporation. Material from Heinemann Educational archives at University of
Reading Publishing archives reproduced by kind permission of Pearson Education
Limited. Photograph from BBC studio is Copyright © BBC. Permission to quote
from Faber and Faber marketing materials, correspondence, and the reader's
report on My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, by Amos Tutuola, is granted by Faber and
Faber Ltd. and the estate of T.S. Eliot. The facsimile page from The Palm-Wine
Drinkard, by Amos Tutuola, is reproduced with the permission of the author's
estate; Faber and Faber Ltd.; copyright © 1953 George Braziller, and used by per-
mission of Grove/Atlantic, Inc.; any third party use of this material, outside this
publication, is prohibited.
This page intentionally left blank
Commonwealth of Letters
This page intentionally left blank
1. Modernist Networks and Late
Colonial Intellectuals

During World War II, there must have been times when British radio audiences
wondered if writers and intellectuals had annexed the BBC for their own obscure
purposes. After the broadcaster’s establishment in 1922, it quickly became the most
important single patron of metropolitan writers. The war further consolidated
its position as a major cultural institution. Intellectuals who did not enlist in the
armed forces volunteered their services to wartime broadcasting, huddling around
microphones, exchanging views on everything from medieval poetry to modern
social problems. Euphemistic news bulletins occasionally interrupted the barrage,
but before long JB Priestley or EM Forster would return to the airwaves to defend
liberal democracy and the arts in equal measures.
Some of these broadcasts were political and patriotic, involving the dissemina-
tion of propaganda for domestic consumption. Cultural programming, however,
maintained its privileged position at the BBC throughout the conflict. A confluence
of accidents, official policies, personalities, and BBC traditions meant that cultural
broadcasts tended to be thoroughly apolitical even as the conflict limped to an
uncertain end. The organization’s hierarchy, especially its first managing director,
John Reith, believed that elite programming—broadcasts of classical music per-
formances, literary reviews, poetry readings, radio plays, and personal essays, for
example—could foster patriotic sentiment by supplying intellectually stimulating
material and by avoiding simplistic propaganda. Reith was a devoted adherent of

1
2 COMMONWEALTH OF LETTERS

Matthew Arnold, believing that high culture could consolidate national unity by
refusing to concede anything to political exigency.
Cultural features were equally important for overseas programming, espe-
cially where the British Empire needed reinforcement. The BBC exported cultural
programming to British Africa, India, and the West Indies in an effort to bol-
ster loyalty to the empire among colonial listeners—again, not by broadcasting
straightforward propaganda, but by advertising the humane spirit and cooperative
cultural mission of the empire. Forster’s and George Orwell’s wartime programs
for the Eastern Service were notable attempts to woo India’s English-speaking
elites during a period when British rule seemed increasingly tenuous.1 With simi-
lar motives, TS Eliot read drafts of Four Quartets on the Eastern Service while
refusing to share the material with metropolitan listeners.2 Whether or not these
programs succeeded in inspiring sympathy with the empire’s long-term interests is
another matter entirely: by most accounts, Forster and Orwell had credibility with
Indian listeners because both were known as critics of imperialism. Orwell even-
tually resigned his post with the broadcaster, citing the strain of producing work
for the supposedly impartial BBC while the British government continued to resist
demands for Indian self-determination (West 57–59). The BBC’s policy of using
elite culture to mitigate political differences might have been a boon for highbrow
artists such as Eliot, but the strategy was ineffective or even counterproductive in
fulfilling its political mandate.
The BBC’s patchwork efforts to tighten the cultural bonds between metro-
politan and colonial spheres gradually developed into a system of regular pro-
gramming in colonial regions. Orwell’s poetry magazine, Voice, was recorded in
London studios but transmitted to an Indian audience in 1942. Orwell invited the
Jamaican poet Una Marson to share her verse on the program, and a few years
later she modeled Caribbean Voices on the pattern of the Indian original. This
photograph (Figure 1.1), featuring Marson seated in the center and Orwell hover-
ing over her shoulder, was taken at a Voice recording session. Caribbean Voices
continued weekly broadcasts long after the end of the war, and the format proved
so successful that the BBC attempted similar ventures with their African program-
ming. Aside from Marson and Orwell, the photograph captures several notable
personalities working together: Eliot sits to her right; Mulk Raj Anand sits on her
left; William Empson stands in the background, apparently listening to Marson
and Eliot as they consult the script; on Eliot’s right is MJ Tambimuttu, the influ-
ential editor of Poetry London from 1939 to 1949.3 Narayana Menon, a BBC music
producer, later to become Director General of All India Radio, sits on the far right
(Menon also published a book on WB Yeats in 1942, reviewed favorably by Orwell
 MODERNIST NETWORKS 3

Figure 1.1 BBC recording studio, 1942 (photo probably taken 1 Dec, from correspondence
between Eliot and Orwell [see WJ West 231]). From left to right: (sitting) Venu Chitale, MJ
Tambimuttu, TS Eliot, Una Marson, Mulk Raj Anand, Christopher Pemberton, Narayana
Menon; (standing) George Orwell, Nancy Barratt, William Empson. Copyright © BBC,
reproduced with permission.

in Horizon and by EM Forster on a BBC broadcast).4 Notable absentees include

Forster and GV Desani, author of All About H. Hatterr, both of whom appeared
regularly on the Indian section of the BBC’s wartime Eastern Service. Stephen
Spender joined Orwell’s Voice occasionally before assuming a more regular slot on
its Caribbean partner, while John Lehmann, another influential literary personal-
ity, acted briefly as an advisor for the Eastern Service and later as a major promoter
of West Indian writing.
This photograph gives some sense of what modernist cultural institutions had
been during the interwar period and what they would become after the war was fin-
ished. The recording studio gives the impression of an intimate, cloistered group of
intellectuals disseminating their work to an invisible, anonymous public beyond.
The image also encourages the contemporary viewer to speculate that some mod-
ernist networks, as intellectuals adapted them to survive the middle decades of the
century, began to function as sites of exchange between metropolitan and colonial
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