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Sanjay Kumar Gupta · Faizal Bux Editors

Application of
Microalgae in
Wastewater
Treatment
Volume 1: Domestic and Industrial
Wastewater Treatment
Application of Microalgae in Wastewater Treatment
Sanjay Kumar Gupta • Faizal Bux
Editors

Application of Microalgae in
Wastewater Treatment
Volume 1: Domestic and Industrial
Wastewater Treatment
Editors
Sanjay Kumar Gupta Faizal Bux
Environmental Engineering, Department of Institute for Water and Wastewater
Civil Engineering Technologies
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi Durban University of Technology
New Delhi, Delhi, India Durban, South Africa

ISBN 978-3-030-13912-4    ISBN 978-3-030-13913-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13913-1

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Preface

In the past few decades, algal technologies have been one of the extensively studied
fields of biological sciences for numerous environmental, biological, biomedical,
and industrial applications. Microalgae are one of the simplest photosynthetic life-­
forms which have an amazing potential of growing in very harsh environmental
conditions. Microalgae hold amazing potential for the sequestration of various
nutrients from water to carbon dioxide from the air. These organisms hold great
potential, and are desperately required for sustainable and renewable management
of food, fodder, and fuels. Algal biomass can be used for food, bioremediation,
biofuels, and a number of chemicals. Microalgae have a capacity to produce poly-
mers, toxins, fatty acids, and enzymes, which can be useful for pharmaceutical,
nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical developments. The present book, Application of
Algal Technologies for Wastewater Treatment Volume I, deals with the application
of the characteristic features of various types of microalgae, diatoms, and blue-­
green algae for the treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater. Chapter 1 of
this book provides a brief introduction to the global perspective of phycoremedia-
tion technologies. The authors have provided an overview and current status of
algae-based bioremediation, and the challenges towards achieving global
sustainability.
Diatoms are heterokonts which are highly diverse and have significant evolution-
ary differences compared to green algae, but serve as a sink for greenhouse gas.
About 20% of the total photosynthetic carbon dioxide fixation and 40% of annual
marine primary productivity depend on diatoms. Diatoms have great potential as
bio-indicators as their population diversity reflects the environmental conditions of
their oceanic or riverine ecosystems. The ease of their detection and versatility
across different eco-systems complements their sensitivity to many physicochemi-
cal and biological changes. Chapter 2 and Chapter 15 provide detailed informa-
tion about the current research on the potential advantages and lacuna pertinent to
the utilization of diatoms for domestic and industrial wastewater remediation.

v
vi Preface

Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 describes the suitable approach to sustainable wastewa-

ter treatment using different strains of microalgae as well as by developing designer
microalgae consortia. This chapter elaborates how developed microalgae consortia
can play a futuristic role for carbon capture and could be used as a cost-effective
tool for the production of various chemicals, as well as for wastewater treatment.
Both of the chapter covers the various aspects related to the utilization of algal-­
bacterial interaction in wastewater remediation from laboratory scale to pilot scale
studies.
Despite promising research findings on microalgae for WWT at the laboratory
scale, the large scale of microalgae-based WWT processes is reliable only in out-
door systems that still need further investigations. Chapter 5 provides an overview
of the most up-to-date information on outdoor cultivation of microalgae for waste-
water treatment and discusses the progress and the important operational factors
facing the outdoor culture.
Endocrine disrupting chemicals interference in the endocrine system of an
exposed organism are considered one of the most emerging pollutants. The removal
of increasing level of EDCs from wastewater has become a major concern nowa-
days. Chapter 6 provides state-of-the-art information on algae mediated remedia-
tion of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from wastewater. In this chapter, the
authors have reviewed recent literature pertaining to the application of microalgae
for remediation of EDCs and various practical avenues of this technology in the area
of wastewater treatment. Several eco-friendly natural methods have emerged for
bioremediation of wastewater. However, algae-based bioremediation offers dual
advantages of wastewater treatment as well as biomass production from wastewater
which has tremendous secondary and tertiary uses. Chapter 7 and Chapter 13 deal
with bioremediation of municipal sewage water using microalgae and algal-­bacterial
consortia. The biomasss production using wastewater for various applications is
another aspect thoroughly covered in these chapters.
Chapter 8 provides an overview of applications, challenges, and future prospects
of phycoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons polluted sites. In this chapter, the
authors have mainly focused on present practical and technological constraints to
employing sustainable methods for the removal of petroleum hydrocarbons from
wastewater. This chapter discusses the biogeochemical pathway leads degradation
of petrochemical polluted soils and groundwater using phycoremediation
techniques.
Chapter 9 discusses the genetic transformation and transgenesis technologies
that could be applied for algae, and highlights the potential use of transgenic algae
in wastewater treatment. The authors have reviewed various genetic modifications
and transgenesis technologies which can improve the physiological characteristics
of algae, further enhancing the potential utilization of algae in wastewater treatment
and other bioremediation applications.
Due to longer persistence and higher toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity,
persistent organic chemicals (POPs) and pharmaceutical compounds are the most
widespread pollutants which affect both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.
Conventional water treatment plants are not efficient enough to remove the POPs,
Preface vii

including pharmaceutical compounds. Therefore, more effective and cost-effective

waste treatment procedures are required for the removal of these chemicals.
Chapter 10 discusses various micro algal-based systems for the removal of pharma-
ceutical compounds, application challenges and future prospects. Chapter 11 pro-
vides a detailed review of the molecular mechanisms involved in bioremediation
and biotransformation of POPs. The limitations and various approaches to enhance
phycoremediation is discussed in detail.
Chapter 12 presents a comprehensive overview of the feasibility of application of
microalgae in pathogen removal from wastewater. The mechanisms involved in
pathogens removal, factors affecting pathogens elimination and feasibility of algal
technologies for pathogen removal are discussed in detail.
Textile effluents contain high levels of synthetic dyes, detergents, stain repel-
lents, waxes, and biocides. The dyes are often non-biodegradable and carcinogenic.
Therefore, treatment of such effluents before release into the environment is impera-
tive. Several physicochemical treatment methods have been developed, but most of
them are energy intensive. Application of algae for the bioremediation of textile
effluents has emerged as an environmentally friendly and economic technique.
Chapter 14 discusses the possibilities and constraints of phycoremediation of textile
effluents.
Pesticides and pesticide residues have led to significant contamination of entire
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and are major causes of biodiversity loss. Most
organic and inorganic pesticides pose a tremendous threat to humans an ecosys-
tems. Microbial bioremediation has proven to be efficient, inexpensive, and eco-­
friendly. Chapter 16 presents a comprehensive overview about the feasibility of
using bacterial-microalgal consortium for the bioremediation of common industrial,
agricultural and domestic pesticides leading to soil and water contamination, while
outlining a variety of remediation approaches to treat wastewater. Furthermore, this
chapter includes a discussion on the factors affecting both bioaccumulation and
biodegradation efficiencies, including limitationsassociated with approach, envi-
ronment and microbial consortium.
The use of blue-green algae (BGA) started in the early twentieth century and has
gained immense attention for its various applications in agricultural biotechnology,
natural products, cosmetics, and the production of numerous secondary metabolites
including vitamins, enzymes, and pharmaceuticals. Recent understandings of cel-
lular and metabolic diversities of BGA have given a new hope for its application in
wastewater treatment, which has started to gain popularity in the last few decades.
Chapter 17 summarizes recent reports of BGA usage in wastewater treatment and
its future applications in Phytoremediation.
Conventional open algal ponds are used for wastewater treatment, and are con-
sidered as a low-cost option for algal biomass production. However, such systems
are dependent on the prevalent environmental factors and do not provide a sufficient
level of control over the process, thus achieving a sub-optimal performance. Two
chapters deal with the design and optimization aspects of algal systems for waste-
water treatment. Chapter 18 provides an overview of photobioreactor technology,
the inherent complexity of their application, and current technical advances leading
viii Preface

to their large-scale application. Chapter 19 provides an overview of the design and

basic limiting factors of algal cultivation systems. The design considerations include
light irradiance/distribution, culture mixing/agitation, air-CO2 mixture supply, heat
and gas-liquid mass transfers, and energy inputs. A detailed description of several
algal growing systems, viz., facultative waste stabilization ponds, shallow ponds,
raceway, tubular photobioreactors, flat panel photobioreactors, and airlift photobio-
reactors, are provided in this chapter.
This book is intended to be a practical guide for scholars and experts working on
the application of algal technologies for bioremediation. This book is divided into
two volumes. The first volume contributes significant knowledge about various
algal technologies using microalgae, diatoms and blue-green algae applied for the
treatment of domestic and various types of industrial wastewater as well as phyco-
remediation of emerging pollutants, whereas the second volume comprises of vari-
ous aspects of water and wastewater based algal biorefineries.

New Delhi, Delhi, India  Sanjay Kumar Gupta

Durban, South Africa   Faizal Bux
Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I thank the Almighty God for sustaining the enthusiasm with
which I plunged into this endeavor.
I avail this opportunity to express my profound sense of sincere and deep grati-
tude to the many people who are responsible for the knowledge and experience I
have gained during this book project.
First of all, I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to each of the authors for
devoting their time and effort towards this book and for the contribution of their
excellent pieces of academic work. Without the overwhelming support of several
authors, we may not have been able to accomplish this mammoth task. The contri-
butions of all authors are sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged.
I would like to thank the Publisher, Springer, for providing continuous support
and a platform to publish this book. I would also like to thank publishing editor Dr.
Sherestha Saini, Senior Editor, Springer New York for her suggestions, and con-
tinuous support. This wonderful compilation get published thanks to her tremen-
dous efforts. I would also like to thank the production team, especially, Ms.
Chandhini Kuppusamy, M. Gabriele, Aaron Schiller and Susan Westendorf for
their technical support. They worked with me throughout the course of this book
project.
I express my sincere gratitude to all the faculties of Environmental Engineering,
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, for their
wholehearted support and encouragement for this book and all the academic
works.
From the bottom of my heart, I would like to thank my colleagues, who continu-
ally and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure, whenever I felt low, which
kept me agile during this endeavor.
I do not have words to express my thankfulness to my mother Smt. Manju Gupta
who has always been a source of motivation in every walk of my life. I would like
to express my deepest appreciation to Ajay and Maushami for their endless support.

ix
x Acknowledgments

Last but not least, it would be unfair on my part if I failed to record the s­ upport,
encouragement, and silent sacrifices of my wife Preeti and my lovely kids Shubhangi
& Adweta. Without their persistent support, this book would not be possible.
I would like to dedicate this book to Master Arjan, the cutest junior m
­ ember of my
family.
New Delhi, Delhi, India Sanjay Kumar Gupta
Contents

Phycoremediation Technology: A Global prospective����������������������������������    1

Sumedha Nanda Sahu, Narendra Kumar Sahoo, and Satya Narayana Naik
The Diatoms: From Eutrophic Indicators to Mitigators������������������������������   19
Aviraj Datta, Thomas Kiran Marella, Archana Tiwari, and Suhas P. Wani
A Review of Micropollutant Removal by Microalgae����������������������������������   41
Sikandar I. Mulla, Ram Naresh Bharagava, Dalel Belhaj, Fuad Ameen,
Ganesh Dattatraya Saratale, Sanjay Kumar Gupta, Swati Tyagi,
Kishor Sureshbhai Patil, and Anyi Hu
Developing Designer Microalgae Consortia: A Suitable Approach
to Sustainable Wastewater Treatment������������������������������������������������������������   57
Adi Nath, Kritika Dixit, and Shanthy Sundaram
Outdoor Microalgae Cultivation for Wastewater Treatment����������������������   81
Djamal Zerrouki and Abdellah Henni
Current State of Knowledge on Algae-­Mediated Remediation
of Endocrine-­­Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) from Wastewater������������������ 101
Ritu Singh, Monalisha Behera, Sanjeev Kumar, and Anita Rani
Bioremediation of Municipal Sewage Using Potential Microalgae ������������ 121
Chitralekha Nag Dasgupta, Kiran Toppo, Sanjeeva Nayaka,
and Atul K. Singh
Phycoremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon-Polluted Sites:
Application, Challenges, and Future Prospects�������������������������������������������� 145
Pankaj Kumar Gupta, Shashi Ranjan, and Sanjay Kumar Gupta
Genetic Technologies and Enhancement of Algal Utilization
in Wastewater Treatment and Bioremediation���������������������������������������������� 163
Mohamed A. El-Esawi

xi
xii Contents

Potential and Feasibility of the Microalgal System in Removal

of Pharmaceutical Compounds from Wastewater���������������������������������������� 177
Mayuri Chabukdhara, Manashjit Gogoi, and Sanjay Kumar Gupta
Phycoremediation of Persistent Organic Pollutants
from Wastewater: Retrospect and Prospects������������������������������������������������ 207
Ashutosh Pandey, Manish Pratap Singh, Sanjay Kumar,
and Sameer Srivastava
Feasibility of Microalgal Technologies in Pathogen Removal
from Wastewater���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 237
Rouf Ahmad Dar, Nishu Sharma, Karamjeet Kaur,
and Urmila Gupta Phutela
Remediation of Domestic Wastewater Using Algal-Bacterial
Biotechnology �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 269
Shashi Bhushan, Halis Simsek, Aswin Krishna, Swati Sharma,
and Sanjeev Kumar Prajapati
Phycoremediation of Textile Wastewater: Possibilities
and Constraints������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 291
Steffi Jose and S. Archanaa
Potential and Application of Diatoms for Industry-Specific
Wastewater Treatment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 321
Archana Tiwari and Thomas Kiran Marella
Feasibility of Using Bacterial-Microalgal Consortium
for the Bioremediation of Organic Pesticides: Application
Constraints and Future Prospects������������������������������������������������������������������ 341
James McLellan, Sanjay Kumar Gupta, and Manish Kumar
Potential of Blue-Green Algae in Wastewater Treatment���������������������������� 363
Pushan Bag, Preeti Ansolia, S. K. Mandotra, and Amit K. Bajhaiya
Photobioreactors for Wastewater Treatment������������������������������������������������ 383
Vaishali Ashok, Sanjay Kumar Gupta, and Amritanshu Shriwastav
Design Considerations of Algal Systems for Wastewater
Treatment���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 411
Mahmoud Nasr

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 427
About the Editors

Sanjay Kumar Gupta is Technical Superintendent,

Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil
Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi, India. Dr. Gupta started his research carrier in
1999 at CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,
Lucknow India. His PhD was awarded in 2010 from
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Faizabad.
Later, he did his post-doctoral research from Durban
University of Technology, South Africa. He has been
recognized thrice as “One of the Top Publisher Post-
Doc Fellow” in 2014, 2016 and 2017 for his active
research contributions. Dr. Gupta has authored 65 arti-
cles in peer-reviewed journals and books, and has pre-
sented 20 papers in national and international
conferences. He was an Editor for Journal of
Ecophysiology and Occupational Health, and is a life
member of many professional societies including the
International Society of Environmental Botanists,
Society of Toxicology, Academy of Environmental
Biology, and the Indian Network for Soil Contamination
Research. His research interests include ecotoxicologi-
cal risk assessment, bioremediation of wastewater and
industrial effluents, and algal biotechnology.

xiii
xiv About the Editors

Faizal Bux is Director of the Institute for Water and

Wastewater Technology at Durban University of
Technology in South Africa. He received his B.Sc.
from University of Durban-Westville in 1986, his M.
Tech. in Biotechnology from Technikon Natal in 1997,
and his Ph.D. in Biotechnology from Durban institute
of Technology in 2003. He has edited 5 books, written
121 articles in peer-reviewed journals, authored 17
book chapters, and is an Editor for the journals
Environmental Science and Health, Biofuels Research
Journal, and Water Science and Technology. His
research interests include biological nutrient removal
in wastewater treatment, algal biotechnology, and bio-
remediation of industrial effluents. He has more than
20 years of experience at higher Education Institutes
and has received numerous institutional awards includ-
ing the Vice Chancellor’s and University Top Senior
researcher awards. Prof Bux is ranked as the most pub-
lished researcher at Durban University of Technology.
He has supervised over 50 Masters and Doctoral stu-
dents, and 10 Post doctoral fellows served their tenure
under his guidance. He was an editor for CLEAN–Soil,
Air, Water (John Wiley & Sons, Germany),
Environmental Science and Health Part A (Taylor
Francis, USA), and served as a reviewer for 28
International Journals. His citations are in excess of
5159 with an H Index of 33. Prof Bux is an invited
Member of the Management Committee of the
International Water Association IWA) specialist group
(Microbial Ecology and Water Engineering, MEWE)
and is actively involved in coordinating activities of
MEWE globally.
Phycoremediation Technology: A Global
prospective

Sumedha Nanda Sahu, Narendra Kumar Sahoo, and Satya Narayana Naik

1 Introduction

Water crisis is realized as one of the major issues and global threat, even though
sufficient water and land resources are available (CA 2007). According to United
Nations World Water Development Report (2014), more than two million tons of
sewage, agricultural, and industrial wastes is dumped untreated into lakes, rivers,
and other waterbodies in developing countries that is eventually polluting the usable
water supply. Almost all waterbodies globally are highly polluted because of release
of various industrial as well as domestic wastewaters. This untreated wastewater
provides various organic and inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phospho-
rus (P), for the autotrophs which in turn leads the process of eutrophication in water-
bodies (Schindler et al. 2008).
The art of utilization of algae (macro- or microalgae) in removal, biotransforma-
tion, or mineralization of various nutrients, heavy metals, and xenobiotics from
wastewater and carbon dioxide from waste air (Olguin and Sanchez-Galvan 2012)
is known as phycoremediation. During this treatment, carbon, nitrogen, phospho-
rus, and other salts are used by algae as nutrients, from the wastewater or air as the
case may be. Other pollutants and xenobiotics are even taken care of by the organ-
isms by various cellular mechanisms. This is an eco-friendly process as there is no
secondary pollution if the biomass produced is harvested for utilization (Mulbry
et al. 2008). Literature reveals that algal bioremediation (phycoremediation) tech-
nology is highly relevant and has immense potential for future applications in vari-
ous waste removal strategies. In the past few decades, extensive research has been
made in algal biotechnological advancement and has successfully established the

S. N. Sahu · N. K. Sahoo · S. N. Naik (*)

Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
New Delhi, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

S. K. Gupta, F. Bux (eds.), Application of Microalgae in Wastewater Treatment,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13913-1_1
2 S. N. Sahu et al.

system of wastewater remediation using algae, microalgae in particular, in r­ eduction

of an array of organic, inorganic nutrients, and some highly toxic chemicals
(Beneman et al. 1980; Thomas et al. 2016).
The agents of phycoremediation, algae, are photosynthetic organisms, capable of
growing in extremely harsh and difficult environments. In addition, there are vari-
ous research reports on microalgal sequestration of various heavy metals in their
cell walls through process of adsorption or ion exchange, as a means of bioremedia-
tion of heavy metals (Priyadarshani et al. 2011). While microalgae are microscopic,
macroalgae are visible to naked eye. Phycoremediation can serve many purposes
such as (i) utilization of nutrients from wastewater; (ii) transformation, degradation,
or removal of xenobiotics; (iii) remediation of acidic and metal rich wastewaters;
(iv) CO2 sequestration; and (v) biosensor-based detection of toxic compounds (Gani
et al. 2015). By taking in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and giving out oxy-
gen through photosynthesis, not only they purify the air, but their interplay with the
pollutants reduces the load from entering the waterbodies. However, it is still a chal-
lenge to develop and optimize processes to treat industrial effluent as well as to
restore polluted rivers and lakes through the process of phycoremediation. In addi-
tion, there are various research reports on microalgal sequestration of various heavy
metals in their cell walls through process of adsorption or ion exchange, as a means
of bioremediation of heavy metals (Priyadarshani et al. 2011).
As algae are emerging as a potential biofuel candidate due to its productivity and
other beneficial characteristics, successful pilot-/field-scale trials are now coming
into existence. These production systems for biofuels can be exploited for phycore-
mediation to make it more profitable and eco-friendly. Such approach will help in
making the biofuel technology economically feasible. In the recent day, technologi-
cal advancement has explored the scope of microalgae to mitigate various hazard-
ous pollutants in the environments. Moreover, phycoremediation strategy coupled
with energy production is well established; however algal biofuel technology is not
feasible commercially because of higher energy inputs. Additionally, modification
in the cultivation system, harvesting systems, extraction technology, and biomass
utilization approaches (biochemical and thermochemical) could be adopted to cope
with sustainability issue via an integrated/biorefinery approach as demonstrated in
Fig. 1. Let us discuss the various important issues of phycoremediation in details
starting from cultivation itself.

2 Different Algal Systems Used for Bioremediation

The cultivation systems for algal biomass production coupling with remediation of
wastewater are basically open systems and closed systems (photobioreactor). Other
than the suspension culture, attached cultivation is also frequently implemented both
in open systems and closed systems. Among these, open pond (raceway ponds) algae
culturing and turf scrubbers are the most popular systems for algae cultivation. On
the other hand, the closed systems for algae cultivation (photobioreactors) have more
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