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MIGRATION,
PALGRAVE STUDIES IN CRIME, MEDIA AND CULTURE
DIASPORAS AND CITIZENSHIP

Representing the
Experience of
War and Atrocity
Interdisciplinary Explorations in
Visual Criminology
Edited by Ronnie Lippens · Emma Murray
Palgrave Studies in Crime, Media and Culture

Series Editors
Michelle Brown
Department of Sociology
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN, USA

Eamonn Carrabine
Department of Sociology
University of Essex
Colchester, UK
This series aims to publish high quality interdisciplinary scholarship
for research into crime, media and culture. As images of crime, harm
and punishment proliferate across new and old media there is a grow-
ing recognition that criminology needs to rethink its relations with the
ascendant power of spectacle. This international book series aims to
break down the often rigid and increasingly hardened boundaries of
mainstream criminology, media and communication studies, and cul-
tural studies. In a late modern world where reality TV takes viewers
into cop cars and carceral spaces, game shows routinely feature shame
and suffering, teenagers post ‘happy slapping’ videos on YouTube, both
cyber bullying and ‘justice for’ campaigns are mainstays of social media,
and insurrectionist groups compile footage of suicide bomb attacks for
circulation on the Internet, it is clear that images of crime and control
play a powerful role in shaping social practices. It is vital then that we
become versed in the diverse ways that crime and punishment are rep-
resented in an era of global interconnectedness, not least since the very
reach of global media networks is now unparalleled.
Palgrave Studies in Crime, Media and Culture emerges from a call to
rethink the manner in which images are reshaping the world and crimi-
nology as a project. The mobility, malleability, banality, speed, and scale
of images and their distribution demand that we engage both old and
new theories and methods and pursue a refinement of concepts and
tools, as well as innovative new ones, to tackle questions of crime, harm,
culture, and control. Keywords like image, iconography, information
flows, the counter-visual, and ‘social’ media, as well as the continuing
relevance of the markers, signs, and inscriptions of gender, race, sexual-
ity, and class in cultural contests mark the contours of the crime, media
and culture nexus.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15057
 Ronnie Lippens · Emma Murray
Editors

Representing the
Experience of War
and Atrocity
Interdisciplinary Explorations
in Visual Criminology
Editors
Ronnie Lippens Emma Murray
Keele University Liverpool John Moores University
Keele, UK Liverpool, UK

Palgrave Studies in Crime, Media and Culture

ISBN 978-3-030-13924-7 ISBN 978-3-030-13925-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13925-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019932122

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein
or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: GettyImages-956815584

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
Ronnie Lippens

2 Georges Bataille’s Paleolithic Cave Art and the Human

Condition 17
Patrick Van Calster

3 The Aesthetics of Violence 45

David Polizzi

4 Images of Atrocity: From Victimhood to Redemption

and the Implications for a (Narrative) Victimology 73
Sandra Walklate

5 Fathers and Sons: Loss and Truth in War Films from

Bosnia and Sri Lanka 93
Dubravka Zarkov, Neloufer De Mel and Rada Drezgic

v
vi   Contents

6 Implicit Criminologies in the Filmic Representations

of Genocide 123
Mark Bostock

7 Prometheus and the Degenerate: Arno Breker, Hans

Bellmer, and Francis Bacon’s Extreme Realism 153
Mark Featherstone

8 The Separate System? A Conversation on Collaborative

Artistic Practice with Veterans-in-Prison 179
Emma Murray, Katie Davies and Emily Gee

9 Performing Atrocity: Staging Experiences of Violence

and Conflict 203
Will McGowan

10 Competing to Control the Post-conflict Present:

Articulating Victimhood in Exhibitions in Northern
Ireland 227
Matthew Jackson

Index 253
 Contributors

Mark Bostock Macclesfield, UK

Katie Davies University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
Neloufer De Mel University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Rada Drezgic University of Arts, Belgrade, Serbia
Mark Featherstone Keele University, Keele, UK
Emily Gee Liverpool, UK
Matthew Jackson Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern
Ireland, UK
Ronnie Lippens Keele University, Keele, UK
Will McGowan University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
Emma Murray Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
David Polizzi Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN, USA
Patrick Van Calster Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, UK

vii
viii   Contributors

Sandra Walklate University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK; Monash

University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
Dubravka Zarkov Erasmus University of Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands
 List of Figures

Fig. 10.1 Exhibit displaying a collection of rubber/plastic bullets

in the Irish Republican History Museum (Photograph
by author, 26 May 2016) 236
Fig. 10.2 Exhibit displaying a collection of republican weapons
(Photograph by author, 26 May 2016) 238

ix
 1
Introduction
Ronnie Lippens

Eye
Sigmund Freud never wrote much about war and related atrocity.
All his contributions on the topic collected by Maud Ellmann in On
Murder, Mourning and Melancholia (2005) don’t really make for a mas-
sive volume and it is probably fair to say that the works in there that do
deal with war specifically are probably among those by the great psy-
choanalyst that never managed to achieve sustained impact across the
humanities and social sciences. There is one exception though: Totem
and Taboo (published originally in 1913, just before the outbreak of the
First World War) is still widely read and cited. And not only is it the
case that Freud’s essay is still resonating across time, it is also crucially
important for the very theme of this collection. Indeed, Totem and
Taboo, one could argue, is Freud’s speculation on the birth of humanity.

R. Lippens (*)
Keele University, Keele, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
© The Author(s) 2019 1
R. Lippens and E. Murray (eds.), Representing the Experience
of War and Atrocity, Palgrave Studies in Crime, Media and Culture,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13925-4_1
2    
R. Lippens

At the point when the horde of savages morphs into the human con-
dition, there is atrocious bloodshed. In fact, humanity emerged in
and through the very act of slaughter—righteous slaughter, indeed—
whereby the savage Law of the tyrannical father (the alpha male of the
horde, in a way) was replaced with the institutional Law of the band of
brothers who, one could say, decided to not just act as a ‘society’, but
to institute the very idea of a society itself. In other words, humanity
came about when the raw Law of nature, or sheer biological life, was left
for a new form of life—human life—in which human, institutional Law
became the organising principle. It is worth noting that the institution
of institutional and instituting Law is centred on a moment of deliberate
reflection. This is the moment when the band of brothers gets together,
and decides to act, in unison, according to something that we would
recognise as the deliberate institution of Law. Human society,
and the Law that embodies it, then, rest upon the capacity, in the
no-longer-purely-biological-organism, to reflect. This capacity in turn
rests upon the capacity, in the organism, to put distance between itself
and the situation, and to imagine a world that is not there, and that has
yet to be instituted. And, Freud seems to suggest, this process of insti-
tution is bound to involve violence. Someone, or something, will have
to be sacrificed—in Freud’s parable this something was pure, ‘savage’
biological life—if the new is going to have to emerge. Human society,
and its building blocks (i.e. Law), rest upon deliberate sacrifice. They
rest upon violence and bloodshed. The image of the new that suddenly
crystallised in the reflecting minds of the brothers, that is, the shape of
the Law and the forms of life to come, were bound to lead to slaugh-
ter: slaughter of the old. The mind’s eye, in a way, always harbours the
potential for destruction and ‘righteous’ slaughter.
It should perhaps come as no surprise that Freud’s Totem and Taboo
has had quite an impact on legal theory (see e.g. Fitzpatrick 2001).
But for our purposes here there is more in Freud’s story that is worth
noting. No sooner had the band of brothers killed off the savage father
and his biological, tyrannical Law, than guilt and mourning struck.
The very process of reflection-killing-institution had, of course, turned
the mere biological organisms into human beings, and their reflective
capacity could not but prompt them to see and feel, to contemplate,
 1 Introduction    
3

and consequently, to mourn the momentous loss they had caused.

The newly instituted Law—and the shape of human society—could
not, and cannot, be taken for granted. In a world of reflecting human
beings, with their mind’s eyes filled with images, the Law needs an
anchoring point. That anchoring point is the Totem. The totem not
only allows the emerging human society to mourn the loss of what once
was—for example: the ancestors—but, as the embodiment of the Law,
it also allows human society to form and take shape around an image,
that is, something that can be seen, sensed, felt, and that therefore
engages the body. The totem also, in other words, mournfully taps into
the natural, biological dimension of life. The totem hasn’t forgotten. For
all its institutive force, it also, at the same time, remembers. In early
human societies, this notion of the image could be taken quite literally.
The totem was a very visible, sensory thing. It was carried around, or
stood there, wherever the tribe lived or went, and instituted their cus-
toms, their Law. Looking at the totem, sensing it, the eye looks to the
future (and imagines it, hopeful) and to the past (mournful) at the same
time. That mourning loss is a sensory, indeed a bodily experience, is,
to most, a truism. But to mourn loss is also a human thing to do. It is
done by a reflective being that uses its biology, or its senses—its eyes in
particular—to accomplish it.
The totem however always comes with the taboo. As the embodiment
of the Law, the totem is always particular; and so, of course, is the Law.
The Law is always this law. Or that law. It never just is ‘Law’. That may
have been the case at the time of the savage hordes, when life was lived
according to a divinely natural biological Law. But after the Fall (as the
Bible had it in its version of the story of the birth of humanity) into the
human, all too human obsession with good and evil, this is no longer
the case. The Law in the world of humans is always anchored to this or
that totem. But there are so many totems. In a world of reflective beings
that cannot but incessantly imagine new worlds, and that are very often
inclined to put some distance between themselves and the totem/Law in
whose space they find themselves, the latter tend to multiply unrelent-
ingly. In a world of beings that have the capacity to reflect themselves
out of and into worlds, the anchors that hold them in place can quite
easily be cut loose (and that, paradoxically, is why the totem is often
4    
R. Lippens

imagined in the first place, i.e. to stabilise, attract, to anchor, to fix, and
to destroy all that threatens to undermine it). But by looking at the
totem, reflecting upon it, and then, oh taboo!, imagining new worlds—
new totems, new Law—the eye generates once again the potential for
destruction and slaughter which, once it has taken place, will lead to
further institutions of totem/Law, and to further mourning. The human
eye will keep on seeing, sensing, and reflecting. It will keep on generat-
ing totem/Law and taboo. It will keep on destroying, instituting, and
mourning. It will keep on either attacking or defending totems tooth
and nail.
The psychoanalytically inspired anthropologist Ernest Becker had
something very insightful to say about the above. In his book Escape
from Evil (1975) Becker argued how the human being, having left the
purely biological condition, and having acquired reflective ‘God-like’
powers, could no longer live with the memory of its sheer creature-like,
slimy origins, nor with the thought of its impending, equally creature-
like, slimy demise. Living in a chasm of Angst that spans between its
laughably mortal origins and its God-like aspirations, the human being
is prepared to cling to anything that promises salvation. In a bid for
immortality the slimy-but-reflective-creature-that-would-be-a-God
creates, and clings and submits to ‘meaning systems’ which allow it to
delude itself comfortably. The ‘meaning systems’ provide the terrorised
human being with the delusion that its life does indeed have meaning,
and that a life lived within the bounds of its ‘meaning system’ does in
a way promise some level of almost divine immortality. But with such
a groundswell of sheer anxiety underpinning the creature-that-would-
be-God, leading to its unrelenting investment in ‘death denying’ ‘mean-
ing systems’, or ‘immortality projects’, any threat to the latter is likely
to be met with violence and righteous slaughter. There is not a million
miles between Freud’s Totemic Law and Becker’s notion of ‘immortality
project’. And as Mark Featherstone has discussed here, in his reflections
on inter alia Nazi art and the Nazi imaginary more broadly, the more
such immortality projects delude themselves that they are able to access
and preserve the absolute purity of a divine Real, the deadlier the conse-
quences. Woe to those that are impure and that do not fit!
 1 Introduction    
5

Experience
In his contribution to this collection Patrick Van Calster revisits pre-
historic humanity. It turns out that at the very dawn of humanity—
Freud’s and Becker’s focus as well—violence, warfare, and atrocity was
already very much in the mind’s eye of the emerging reflective, institu-
tive human being who, with his band of brothers (assuming warfare was
indeed a male undertaking), was readying himself for the battle to insti-
tute their totemic Law. It was also very much in the eye of the mourn-
ing human being who, after the slaughter, by torchlight, gazed at the
scenes depicted on cave walls, trying to make sense of what on earth
had happened, and what on earth might still be going on. Whether
French historian and philosopher George Bataille should be consulted
here to make sense of this cave art, as Van Calster suggests, remains to
be seen. But Bataille did have a point. The human being may be har-
bouring an ineradicable inclination to cling to destructive meaning sys-
tems and immortality projects, as Becker would have argued, as a mere
creature this human being is also very much drawn to what Bataille
(1957) called ‘continuous life’. Continuous life is life before or beyond
the functional and divisive (‘discontinuous’) strictures of civilisation,
or Totemic law. It is life at the most basic biological level. The warrior
who in his mind’s eye sees the slaughter unfold and the troglodyte who
then studies the patches of paint on the cave’s wall may both have been
engaging in ‘continuous life’, that is, in a purely sensory manner, and in
a bid to achieve a level of ‘sovereignty’ away from the totem’s functional
structures and its Law. But they may also have been contemplating the
loss, and the institution of their totemic law instead. Or, more likely
perhaps, as the creature-that-wanted-to-be-a-God, they may have been
doing both at the same time. The historical record shows that scenes
similar to those that took place in prehistoric Lascaux have played out
thousands of times since the dawn of humanity. Seeing, and sensing
Francisco Goya’s The Third May of 1808, or his prints on the Disasters
of War, is probably as gripping an experience as those gone through by
our early ancestors in their caves. It is as reflective or contemplative an
6    
R. Lippens

experience—a ruminative one, one could say—as it is a sensory one. As

mournful an experience as it is a hopeful one.
Some of the contributors to this collection are writing from a back-
ground in criminology. There is in this author’s opinion scope for a
‘sensory criminology’ (Lippens 2017), that is, a criminology that not
just tries to get to grips with the aesthetic and sensory experience of
life, but that, at the same time, also realises that in aesthetic and sen-
sory experience human beings also experience and embody the work-
ings of Law and its censures, i.e. its ‘sensures’. A ‘sensory’ criminology
is already on its way. Indeed, one could say that the broader field of
criminology keeps generating new themes to study and new perspec-
tives to study them with. Over the last few decades we have seen the
gradual emergence and subsequent consolidation of cultural criminol-
ogy, for example, and of what has now become known as visual crimi-
nology. Both strands have meanwhile made a connection, e.g. in works
and collections such as Keith Hayward and Mike Presdee’s on Framing
Crime (2010), which include contributions on the visual, or more
broadly, sensory dimension of cultural expression and representation.
Within the broader criminological community, we have witnessed the
crystallisation of new areas for criminological research and study. One
of those often goes under the name of ‘criminology of war’, and now
includes a whole body of literature on themes ranging from war crime,
crimes against humanity, the experience and representation of armed
conflict and all that this brings with it, transitional and restorative jus-
tice, or indeed post-conflict life and post-conflict experience as such. In
the collection at hand all the aforementioned developments and strands
are brought together by asking the question as to how the experience of
war and related atrocity is often expressed visually, and how such visual
expressions and representations are circulated, and experienced. As
such this collection follows in the footsteps of scholars such as Eamonn
Carrabine (2011, 2018).
Two decades into the twenty-first century we have come to firmly
realise that war and atrocity did not disappear with the passing of
the twentieth, but have, in all likelihood, intensified. The question
as to the experience of war and its visual or sensory representation is
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