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WIRE
TECHNOLOGY
This page intentionally left blank
WIRE
TECHNOLOGY
Process Engineering and
Metallurgy
Second Edition

By

ROGER N. WRIGHT

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
Butterworth Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
Copyright © 2016, 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies
and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and
the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/
permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge
in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors,
or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property
as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation
of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-802650-2

For information on all Butterworth Heinemann publications

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DEDICATION

To my wife, Patricia, who has learned that every room is an office, and every
table a desk.

v
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS

Preface xiii
About the Author xv

1. The General Idea 1

1.1 Concepts 1
1.2 How Does Drawing Work? 2
1.3 Questions and Problems 6

2. A Brief History of Technology 7

2.1 Ancient and Early Technology 7
2.2 The Nineteenth Century 9
2.3 The Twentieth Century 10
2.4 Further Reading 11
2.5 Questions and Problems 11

3. Twentieth Century Equipment Concepts 13

3.1 Overview 13
3.2 Benches 13
3.3 Blocks 14
3.4 Multiple-Die Machines 15
3.5 Other In-Line Processes 17
3.6 Post-Twentieth Century Developments 17
3.7 Questions and Problems 18

4. Basic Engineering Variables Pertinent to Drawing 19

4.1 General Quantities 19
4.2 Quantities Describing the Workpiece and Die During Drawing 23
4.3 Questions and Problems 27

5. Basic Drawing Mechanics 29

5.1 A Simple Drawing Stress Model 29
5.2 Drawing Limits 34
5.3 An Illustrative Calculation 34
5.4 The Issue of Optimum Die Angles and △ Values 34
5.5 Die Pressure 35
5.6 Centerline Tension 37

vii
viii Contents

5.7 Plastic Flow Outside the Drawing Cone 39

5.8 Effects of Back Tension 40
5.9 Systems of Analysis 41
5.10 Questions and Problems 41

6. Drawing Temperature 45
6.1 Contributions to the Drawing Temperature 45
6.2 Temperature Measurement 50
6.3 Interpass Cooling 52
6.4 Practical Examples of Drawing Temperature Effects 52
6.5 Questions and Problems 58

7. Drawing Speed 59
7.1 Definition and Basic Formulas 59
7.2 The Role of Drawing Speed in Analysis 60
7.3 The Effect of Drawing Speed on Lubrication 62
7.4 Some Practical Issues 63
7.5 Questions and Problems 64

8. Friction, Lubrication, and Surface Quality 67

8.1 Modes of Lubrication and Related Friction Response 67
8.2 Physical Conditions in the Lubricant Layer 73
8.3 Quantifying the Friction Stress 76
8.4 Drawing with High Friction 77
8.5 Redraw Stock Surface Conditioning Issues 78
8.6 Characterization with Microscopy 79
8.7 Illustrations of Microscopic Characterization and Analysis 80
8.8 The Development of Chevrons (Crow's Feet) 84
8.9 Questions and Problems 89

9. Drawing Die and Pass Schedule Design 91

9.1 General Aspects and the Role of Δ 92
9.2 Common Die Materials 96
9.3 Other Elements of Die Design 100
9.4 Pressure Dies 103
9.5 Die Wear and Die Life 105
9.6 Pass Schedule Concepts 107
9.7 Drawing Practice and Cast and Pitch Control 111
9.8 Questions and Problems 113
 Contents ix

10. Shaped Dies and Roller Dies 115

10.1 Drawing Shapes with One-Piece Dies 115
10.2 Drawing with Unpowered Roller Die Systems 120
10.3 “Drawing” with Powered Roller Die Systems 123
10.4 Roll Gap Issues 125
10.5 Questions and Problems 126

11. Mechanical Properties of Wire and Related Testing 129

11.1 The Flow Stress of the Wire 130
11.2 The Tensile Test 132
11.3 The Crystal Plasticity Basis for the Flow Curve 140
11.4 Other Mechanical Tests 146
11.5 Hardness Tests 146
11.6 Compression Tests 148
11.7 Bending Tests 150
11.8 Torsion Tests 152
11.9 Creep Testing 153
11.10 Fatigue Testing 154
11.11 Springback Testing 155
11.12 Evaluating Residual Stress 156
11.13 Questions and Problems 157

12. Drawability and Breaks 159

12.1 Practical Definitions 159
12.2 Measuring and Estimating Drawability 160
12.3 Categorizing Drawing Breaks 166
12.4 Mechanics of Drawing Breaks 168
12.5 The Generation of “Fines” 173
12.6 Questions and Problems 175

13. Relevant Aspects of Copper and Copper Alloy Metallurgy 177

13.1 Important Properties of Copper 178
13.2 Primary Processing 178
13.3 Crystal Structure, Grains, Texture, Anisotropy, and Springback 181
13.4 Flow Stress, Cold Working, and Annealing 184
13.5 Solid Solutions and Phases 188
13.6 Factors Affecting Conductivity/Resistivity 190
13.7 Dilute Copper Alloys 192
13.8 High-Alloy Systems 194
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x Contents

13.9 Beryllium Copper, a Precipitation Strengthening (Hardening) Alloy 198

13.10 Questions and Problems 199

14. Relevant Aspects of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Metallurgy 201

14.1 Important Properties of Steel 202
14.2 Primary Processing 202
14.3 The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram 205
14.4 Austenite Decomposition 209
14.5 Structure-Mechanical Property Relations 212
14.6 Transformation Diagrams 212
14.7 Flow Stress, Cold Working, and Annealing 217
14.8 Aging in Steel 220
14.9 Carbon Steel Compositions 227
14.10 Low-Alloy Steel Compositions 228
14.11 Recent Technology and Literature 229
14.12 Questions and Problems 232

15. Other Metallurgical Systems for Wire Technology 235

15.1 Aluminum and its Alloys 235
15.2 Austenitic Stainless Steels 240
15.3 Tool Steels 243
15.4 Nickel and Nickel Alloys 246
15.5 Questions and Problems 249

16. Wire Coatings 251

16.1 Reasons for Coating Wire 251
16.2 Coating Types and Coating Processes 252
16.3 Enamels and Enameling 252
16.4 Extrusion 253
16.5 Hot Dipping 255
16.6 Electrocoating 256
16.7 Other Coating Technologies 257
16.8 Zinc Alloy Coating of Steel—A Detailed Illustration and Analysis 257
16.9 Composite Mechanical Properties of Coated Wire 259
16.10 Questions and Problems 262

17. Redraw Rod Production 263

17.1 The Rod Rolling Process 263
17.2 The Oval/Round Sequence 265
17.3 Other Geometrical Sequences 269
 Contents xi

17.4 Some Process Correction Contexts 270

17.5 Questions and Problems 271

18. Wire Forming 273

18.1 Scope 273
18.2 Bending 273
18.3 Twisting 275
18.4 Stretching 277
18.5 Upsetting 277
18.6 Swaging 277
18.7 Cold Extrusion 282
18.8 Questions and Problems 284

19. Physical Properties 285

19.1 Scope 285
19.2 Density 285
19.3 Melting Points and Ranges 286
19.4 Specific Heat 287
19.5 Thermal Conductivity 287
19.6 Electrical Resistivity 288

20. Current and Near-Term Developments 289

20.1 Scope 289
20.2 Drawing Machines 290
20.3 Metallurgical Powders for High-Wear-Resistance Wire Dies 291
20.4 Fully Synthetic Lubricant for Copper Wire Drawing 292
20.5 Wire Guides 292
20.6 Annealing 292
20.7 Diameter Measurements 293
20.8 Temperature Measurements 295

References 297
List of Symbols 305
Selected Formulae 311
Index 315
This page intentionally left blank
PREFACE

Being in a family with several generations of professional practitioners in

metals processing and the teaching thereof, I suppose my writing of this
book was inevitable. Even so, I must clearly acknowledge two strong influ-
ences outside of the family sphere. The first was the late Walter A. (Al) Back-
ofen, professor of metallurgy and materials science at MIT a half century or
so ago. While I received the benefit of some of his lectures, his major impact
was by the way of his book Deformation Processing, Addison-Wesley, 1972.
This book was the first that I am aware of to teach deformation processing
with major emphasis on Δ, the shape of the deformation zone. To be sure, Δ
or its equivalent was utilized in some of the more enlightened mid-twentieth
century wire drawing research (most notably that of J.G. Wistreich) and cita-
tions of the importance of deformation zone geometry can be found in the
literature of the 1920s. However, Backofen powerfully employed it as a
teaching tool, bringing together a considerable array of mechanical analyses,
process designs, and mechanical metallurgical phenomenology. As a young
metallurgist, I assumed that just about everybody used Δ, only to find out
that its work-a-day industrial applications had been minimal. In this context,
I applied it (arguably even over applied it) every chance that I had, and in the
wire industry I believe it has been of significant value. In any case, it is central
to much of this book, and I have Professor Backofen to thank.
The other influence that I would like to cite was Dr. Alan T. Male, my
manager during the years that I spent at Westinghouse Research Laborato-
ries. Alan was, of course, renown for his development of the ring compres-
sion test that quantifies friction in forging (a brilliant application of
deformation zone geometry, incidentally). Moreover, he had been a faculty
member at The University of Birmingham and had an instinctive and syn-
ergistic approach to applying rigorous research technique and perspective to
industrial processing systems. He, early on, directed my involvement in a
wide variety of sophisticated wire processing studies, as well as in the super-
vision of industrial society seminars and short courses. When I left Westing-
house to join the faculty at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1974, I had
been given a thorough education in wire processing, to go with my broader
backgrounds in metallurgy and metals processing.
Addressing the subject at hand, I have written this book in the style of an
upper-level undergraduate, or possibly graduate-level text, acknowledging

xiii
xiv Preface

that one is not likely to find such a course on wire processing, except perhaps
in Eastern Europe. This approach has allowed me to use directly much of my
experience in technology-focused short courses, as well as my experience in
teaching undergraduates and graduate students at Rensselaer. I have written
it with the hope that it will be useful for self-study and continuing education
offerings, as well as serving as a desk reference. At this point in time, I believe
that it occupies a unique position in the engineering literature.
This second edition differs from its predecessor primarily in its summary
and citation of relevant research of the 2009-2015 time frame.
Finally, I would like to thank the most helpful staff at Elsevier Inc., par-
ticularly Jeffrey Freeland, for their patient handling of this second edition of
my book.

Roger N. Wright, ScD, PE, FASM, FSME

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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 71: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 72: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 73: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 74: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 75: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 76: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 78: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Part 9: Ethical considerations and implications
Example 80: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 85: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 10: Key terms and definitions
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 91: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 91: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 97: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 98: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 11: Interdisciplinary approaches
Practice Problem 100: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 101: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 101: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 104: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 106: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 107: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 12: Best practices and recommendations
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 111: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 115: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 117: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 119: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 120: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 13: Fundamental concepts and principles
Example 120: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 122: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 123: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 124: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 125: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 126: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 128: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Quiz 14: Practical applications and examples
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 132: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 139: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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