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Jeremy Dorovolomo
Govinda Ishwar Lingam Editors

Leadership,
Community
Partnerships
and Schools in
the Pacific Islands
Implications for Quality Education
Leadership, Community Partnerships and Schools
in the Pacific Islands
Jeremy Dorovolomo Govinda Ishwar Lingam
•

Editors

Leadership, Community
Partnerships and Schools
in the Pacific Islands
Implications for Quality Education

123
Editors
Jeremy Dorovolomo Govinda Ishwar Lingam
School of Education School of Education
University of the South Pacific University of the South Pacific
Suva, Fiji Suva, Fiji

ISBN 978-981-15-6482-6 ISBN 978-981-15-6483-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6483-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
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Foreword

This is a significant collection of research findings from the School of Education at

the University of the South Pacific (USP). The school has a long and proud tradition
of teaching, research and scholarship spanning over fifty years, as does the wider
university in which it plays such an important role.
Established by Britain in 1968, USP was designed to serve the needs of its
colonial jurisdictions across the island groups of the Southern and Central Pacific.
With quite remarkable foresight, the university was developed as a regional insti-
tution serving the needs of eleven separate groups, most of which became inde-
pendent nations between the 1970s and 1980s. Another has since joined. The
university is now owned and operated by all twelve of these countries, with each
one represented on its governing council. It is an impressive example of regional
collaboration. While the main campus, Laucala, is located in the largest country,
Fiji, each country, even the smallest, has its own campus that supports an extensive
program of distance education.
What motivated the British to establish such an institution? In the mid-1960s, as
momentum for independence grew across the Pacific region, there was an urgent
need for local educated elites who could assume the roles and responsibilities that
had, until then, been the almost exclusive domain of the colonisers. A regional
university, staffed predominantly by British academics, was seen as the most
effective and efficient way to train a cadre of locals for mid-level roles in the
colonial and immediate post-colonial bureaucracies.
At the time USP was established, the relatively few secondary schools across the
region likewise were staffed almost exclusively by expatriates. With most countries
beginning to expand provisions for secondary education, the British were keen to
localise the staffing of secondary schools, and USP provided the ideal solution, so
much so that in its first fifteen years more than two-thirds of its graduates were
absorbed as teachers into the burgeoning secondary school systems of member
countries. Hence, right from the start, the School of Education became one of the
largest and most important teaching units within the university, focusing on the
provision of teacher education programs.

v
vi Foreword

With a couple of notable exceptions, most staffs of the School of Education in

the early years were expatriates from Britain, Australia and New Zealand, and from
the very beginning a research culture was encouraged. A separate Institute of
Education was established, with the aim of promoting research, consultancy and
publishing. A peer-reviewed academic journal, Directions: Journal of Educational
Studies, was initiated in 1978 to publish research articles, essays and reviews
relevant to education in the Pacific. Regular staff research seminars soon became
the norm, held in the aptly named Talanoa Room in the School of Education.
So successful was USP, along with its School of Education, that by the early
1980s it had largely filled the backlog of teaching vacancies in the region’s sec-
ondary schools. A major “future directions” review in 1983 therefore recommended
significant diversification of USP’s teaching programs. From this time, the School
of Education began to expand its focus to include early childhood, primary and
special education, along with a graduate program in educational administration.
Most importantly, graduate research programs at M.A. and Ph.D. level were
developed and increasing numbers of Pacific island graduates recruited to the staff
of the School.
Another profoundly important transition in the School of Education was the
subtle but steady shift from colonial to post-colonial discourses. As increasing
numbers of Pacific Island academics completed doctoral studies and joined the staff
of the school, pressure grew for a more culturally grounded approach to teaching
and research. There was increasing recognition of the rich diversity of cultures of
knowledge and learning across the region. Although contested, at least in part by
aid donors and some of the remaining expatriate staff, this shift brought new
approaches that reflected the values and epistemologies of Pacific peoples.
By the turn of the century, there was a strong sense of ownership of the
University throughout the region. It was their university, responding to their needs.
Staffing had largely been localised, with Pacific Islanders in most positions of
leadership. The impact of aid donors on its ethos and planning was waning. Within
the School of Education, the staff had a new sense of confidence to develop
teaching programs and research cultures that were uniquely theirs.
And now, in the first twenty years of the new century, the university has
achieved a genuine sense of maturity, its identity firmly anchored in the values and
traditions of its member countries. This is apparent in the School of Education, both
in its teaching programs and its research output. A review of its publications reveals
an impressive diversity of research, both in terms of geographical spread across
USP member countries and the range of methodologies. It also reveals a deep
commitment to applied, culturally grounded research that contributes to improve-
ments in the quality of education across the region.
Which brings us to the present volume: a collection of research papers that were
first presented in the collaborative yet probing environment of the School’s Talanga
Seminar Series. The use of the Tongan talanga for the series is informative, since it
goes further than simply talanoa (conversing; talking) to imply interaction with
purpose. These seminars, then, are not just about the sharing of ideas, but have the
deeper aim of making a difference. And this is clearly evident in all of the papers
Foreword vii

herein. Each has a practical focus, most of the research having been designed in
response to the real challenges faced by teachers in schools.
Reading through various papers, several words come to mind: cultural diversity;
collaboration; community engagement; context. The papers are grounded. One gets
a real sense of the struggles that Pacific Island teachers face in preparing their
students for success in a globalising world. Throughout the Pacific, teachers grapple
with the tension between keeping students strong in their local languages, identities
and values while ensuring that they have the skills necessary for survival in the
world beyond their shores. And these goals are achieved when teachers respect
diversity, listen to communities, engage with families and share ideas collabora-
tively across the region.
The contributors to this volume reflect its cultural diversity. All are present or
former staff members or postgraduate students of the USP School of Education.
Most began their higher education studies at USP, and almost half completed their
Ph.D. studies there. All are Pacific Islanders, albeit from a range of cultural tradi-
tions: Melanesian, Indo-Fijian and Polynesian. Their papers cover a range of
contexts, from the smallest USP member country (Nuie), with its two schools, to
Fiji, the largest. They also cover all sectors, from early childhood, through primary
and secondary and then to university education. The book will be an exceptionally
useful resource for pre- and in-service teacher educators throughout the region,
given its relevance and accessibility. It has been written by Pacific Islanders for
Pacific Islanders.
The book itself is a wonderful celebration of achievement, not only of the
school, but of the wider university. The editors deserve warm congratulations for
nurturing this research and bringing both the seminar series and the book into being.
And the leadership of the university also is worthy of congratulations for ensuring
the survival of the institution, and its development into the strong and effective
place of research and learning that it is today. But neither the school, nor the
university, can rest upon their laurels. The current COVID-19 pandemic poses huge
challenges for the effective delivery of education at all levels across the Pacific
region. The global world post-COVID-19 will be a very different place, demanding
even greater commitment, insight and creativity from educators in the Pacific.

Kangaroo Island, Australia G. R. (Bob) Teasdale

April 2020
Contents

1 Introduction: Contributing to Dialogue About Pacific Islands

Educational Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jeremy Dorovolomo and Govinda Ishwar Lingam
2 Teachers’ Perspectives on Leadership Model in Practice:
The Case of Niuean School Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Govinda Ishwar Lingam and Narsamma Lingam
3 School Leadership Development for Managing Educational
Change: The Case of School Improvement
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Govinda Ishwar Lingam, Hem Chand Dayal, and Narsamma Lingam
4 The Partnership Between School Leaders and Parents: Views
of Solomon Islands Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Ellen Oimae Wairiu
5 Re-Visiting the Social Studies Curriculum of Solomon
Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Billy Fito’o and Jeremy Dorovolomo
6 Student Teachers’ Perception of Citizenship Education
at a Fiji Teachers’ College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Jeremy Dorovolomo and Billy Fito’o
7 Fijian Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Beliefs About
the Nature of Mathematics and Their Self-Reported Teaching
Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Hem Chand Dayal and Govinda Ishwar Lingam
8 Gender Differences in Recess Play in Five Fiji Primary
Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Jeremy Dorovolomo

ix
x Contents

9 Critical Reflection and the Question of Epistemology:

Is Fiji “On the Ball”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Eta Varani-Norton
10 The Importance of Co-authorship and Disciplined
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Jeremy Dorovolomo and Mesake Rawaikela Dakuidreketi
11 Developing Numeracy Skills Using Technology-Enhanced
Learning Activities in Fiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Rajneel Totaram, Krishna Raghuwaiya, Irene Yee Chief,
and Anjeela Jokhan
12 Leading in Early Childhood Education Centres in the Solomon
Islands: Issues and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Billy Fito’o
13 School-Generated Innovative and Creative Ideas in Two Choiseul
Schools, Solomon Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Jeremy Dorovolomo
14 Strengthening Collaboration with the Community for Sustainable
Development: Implications for School Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Narsamma Lingam and Govinda Ishwar Lingam
15 Conclusion: A Collection and Collaborative
Effort! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Jeremy Dorovolomo and Govinda Ishwar Lingam

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Jeremy Dorovolomo taught in Solomon Islands High Schools for several years
since 1989. He held all posts possible in the Solomon Islands High School system,
including being School Principal, prior to joining the Department for Teacher
Education at the Solomon Islands College of Higher Education in 2000. He joined
the School of Education at The University of the South Pacific (USP) in 2004 and
has worked there to date. He holds the degrees of Bachelor of Education
(Queensland University of Technology), Master of Education (University of
Southern Queensland) and Doctor of Education (Southern Cross University). He is
Chair of the USP School of Education Research Committee, heavily publishes and
has been a regular recipient of Vice Chancellor’s awards for quality publications
since the inception of the award system in 2012.

Govinda Ishwar Lingam is Professor of Teacher Education and Head of the

School of Education at The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. His previous
experience includes secondary school teaching, rising to the position of Head of
Department for Mathematics, before serving at a primary teachers college in Fiji as
Senior Lecturer in Education and later as Head of the School of Education. His
research interests include issues relating to social justice in education, teacher
education, educational leadership and management, assessment and values educa-
tion. He has published several articles in scholarly journals and books and
edited/authored a number of books.

xi
xii Editors and Contributors

Contributors

Irene Yee Chief is an Instructional Designer at The University of the South Pacific
(USP). She is responsible for designing online courses. She holds a B.Ed. (USP),
B.Sp.Ed. (Monash), Master of Education [Distance Education] (University of South
Australia) and a Ph.D. [Curriculum and Instruction] (New Mexico State
University). She has experience in accreditation of Lifelong Learning (SACS) and
has served as a reviewer for AERA since 2012. Her research interests are inter-
activity in virtual spaces, access to higher education, adult learning, and multi-
cultural education.
Mesake Rawaikela Dakuidreketi is a Senior Lecturer in Education at The
University of the South Pacific School of Education and is currently holding the
position of Deputy Head of School of Education. He has more than 18 years’
experience as an educator at secondary school level in Fiji rising to the level of
Head of Department (Science) before joining The University of the South Pacific
from 1997. He holds a Diploma in Education and Bachelor of Science degree in
Chemistry and Mathematics from The University of the South Pacific, a Master of
Science Education degree from Waikato University and a Ph.D. in Education from
Canterbury University. Mesake has more than four years of experience researching
Education in New Zealand and has intensively researched issues in Primary and
Secondary school education in Fiji, particularly those surrounding the up-take of
science.
Hem Chand Dayal is a Lecturer in Educational Assessment and Evaluation at The
University of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji Islands. He has worked as a Secondary
Mathematics Teacher for ten years before joining the Fiji National University as a
Lecturer. He joined The University of the South Pacific in 2011 as an Assistant
Lecturer. He completed a Ph.D. in Educational Assessment that focused on
development and use of portfolio assessments and teacher professional learning
from The University of the South Pacific in 2017. His primary role at The
University of the South Pacific includes teaching undergraduate and postgraduate
courses in assessment and evaluation. He also teaches assessment and evaluation at
tertiary teaching level in a programme that has a strong focus aligning university
curriculum and assessments to teaching methods. His research interests are in
assessment and evaluation and preparing educators to be assessment literate. In
addition to this, he is interested in exploring how educators use assessment data to
support student learning.
Billy Fito’o is an educator from the Solomon Islands. He has served in the
Teaching Service of the Solomon Islands Government since 1985 and assumed the
role of Primary School Headmaster and Secondary Principal in 1991. He left the
Teaching Service and joined the Public Service of the Solomon Islands Government
in 2010. He became the Deputy Director of the Institute of Public Administration
and Management (Solomon Islands Government) prior to joining The University
of the South Pacific (USP). In his teacher training, he earned a Certificate and
Editors and Contributors xiii

Diploma in teaching from the Solomon Islands College of Higher Education, now
Solomon Islands National University. He holds a Bachelor of Education degree
from USP, a Master of Education degree from Victoria University of Wellington
(VUW) and a Doctor of Philosophy from USP. He is currently a lecturer at the
School of Education at The University of the South Pacific.
Anjeela Jokhan is the Acting Vice-President (Planning, Quality, USP Commercial
and Institutional Research and Data). Previously, she was the Dean of the Faculty of
Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific
(USP) and has a keen interest in eLearning. She has been driving a number of
eLearning initiatives in the faculty and University and has published a number of
articles in this area.
Narsamma Lingam is a Lecturer at the School of Education at The University
of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. She joined the university in 2012 as a Teaching
Assistant until 2019. Prior to joining the university, she served in the Fiji Ministry
of Education in different capacities such as curriculum writer, careers coordinator,
professional counselor and teacher. She holds a certificate in Counseling and
Guidance, B.Ed. degree, and a Postgraduate Diploma in Psychology from The
University of the South Pacific. In addition, she obtained her master’s degree in
Educational Leadership (awarded with distinction) from the University of Otago
and she obtained her Doctor of Philosophy degree in Education (awarded with
distinction) from The University of South Pacific. She has published a number of
articles in scholarly journals and books.
Krishna Raghuwaiya is a Senior Lecturer in Education at The University of the
South Pacific (USP). He holds B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. from USP and has been a
gold medallist in Mathematics at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. He also
has extensive teaching experience at both the secondary and tertiary levels.
Rajneel Totaram is a Learning Systems Developer based with the Centre for
Flexible Learning (CFL) at The University of the South Pacific (USP), Laucala
Campus, Fiji. He holds a Bachelor of Science degree, majoring in Computing
Science and Engineering Technology, and a Post-Graduate Diploma in Computing
Science, both from USP. Currently, Rajneel is completing his Master of Science
degree.
Eta Varani-Norton held various posts at The University of the South Pacific as a
Tutor, Lecturer or Instructional Designer/Course Designer between 1990 and 1995,
and 2012. At the Fiji National University, she was a Lecturer in Education between
2009 and 2011. Between 1997 and 2001, and 2006–2008, she worked at Macquarie
University’s Anthropology Department as a Research Course Coordinator and a
Lecturer in Australian Indigenous Studies at the Indigenous Studies Centre. In 2015
she tutored Indigenous Studies and Education, postgraduate level at the University
of Sydney. She is currently a consultant on Indigenous Fijian issues and writing a
xiv Editors and Contributors

book on Fijian Indigenous knowledge, institutions and quality education. She holds
a B.A. from The University of the South Pacific, M.A. in Education and M.A. in
Anthropology and Development Studies from Macquarie University, and a Ph.D. in
Education from the University of Sydney.
Ellen Oimae Wairiu was a primary school teacher in the Solomon Islands from
1993 to 2000. From 2001 she worked as a government officer in the Ministry of
Education and Human Resources Development (MEHRD) before embarking on a
Bachelor of Education degree from 2005 and a Master of Educational Leadership
degree from 2012 at the University of Waikato in New Zealand. Ellen is currently a
Ph.D. candidate in the School of Education, Faculty of Arts, Language and
Education of The University of the South Pacific.
Chapter 1
Introduction: Contributing to Dialogue
About Pacific Islands Educational Issues

Jeremy Dorovolomo and Govinda Ishwar Lingam

Abstract This edited book engages with topics ranging across the educational spec-
trum from school to university and includes perspectives from a wide range of
stakeholders including leaders, teachers, parents and students. Some of the pressing
concerns within Pacific Island educational systems continue to be literacy, numeracy
and educational leadership. This book presents research which specifically addresses
these topics. This volume aims to contribute to the ongoing rich dialogue about Pacific
Islands’ educational issues in order to help forge positive and healthy school ecosys-
tems that values equality, diversity, community engagement, fruitful citizenship,
proactive school leadership and valuable student learning that drives an educated
Pacific Islands population into the future. Overcoming educational issues can, in
part, be facilitated through the Pacific approach of Talanga. The chapters here are a
collection of articles presented at Talanga: The School of Education Seminar Series,
at The University of the South Pacific. The lead editor of this volume serves as
Convener of the seminar series, and when this current volume was compiled, the
seminar series was at its 121st session. This current volume is the second edited book
from the seminar series. Talanga is a Tongan concept and word, imbuing purposeful
interaction, dialogue and collaboration.

Keywords Talanga · School leadership · Community partnership · Quality

education · SIDS

In order to respond to the concerns held by Pacific Island leaders over literacy and
numeracy, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) conducted the Pacific
Islands Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (PILNA 2018) in 15 countries in 10
languages. The PILNA uncovered “low levels of student achievement in literacy and
numeracy across the region” (SPC 2018, p. 1). The PILNA had also been conducted
in 2012 and 2015. The persistent low level of achievement among Pacific Island

J. Dorovolomo (B) · G. I. Lingam

Jeremy Dorovolomo School of Education, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala Campus,
Suva, Fiji
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 1
to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
J. Dorovolomo and G. I. Lingam (eds.), Leadership, Community Partnerships and Schools
in the Pacific Islands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6483-3_1
2 J. Dorovolomo and G. I. Lingam

children in literacy and numeracy, reported in the 2018 assessment, presents a grave
concern, and island countries must implement workable strategies to combat this
negative trend.
School leadership has also come to the fore recently. In the context of the Pacific,
school leaders refer to both principals and teachers, but it is the principal who is
expected to deal with school authorities, teachers, parents and the education ministry.
The education system in the Pacific is still centralised and most of the region still
follow the bureaucratic leadership framework. Guided by the argument that the
demands of education reforms have changed and expanded, the tasks of school
principals in order to improve the quality of education have increased. As a result,
principals need further training to implement these reforms. In 2018, Fiji launched
the School Prefects Leadership Programme, aimed at developing emerging leaders
of Fiji in the school context and their communities (Qaranivalu 2018). Furthermore,
the Fiji Ministry of Education emphasised an Open Merit Recruitment and Selection
(OMRS) system for selecting headteachers and principals in order to promote modern
leadership that would drive a modern education system, accompanied by continued
professional leadership development (Prasad 2019). Moreover, Pacific Island coun-
tries such as the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Nauru, Palau, Marshall
Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu gathered in a meeting
facilitated by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) met to discuss the
incorporation of social citizenship, civic education and human rights into existing
national curricula (SPC 2017) to enable young Pacific Islanders to respect human
rights and support their development towards becoming positive members of their
communities. All these factors, and others, affect the quality of education in one way
or the other and are current concerns of island countries.
The Talanga seeks to listen to everyone’s voices, the practice of which begins
with reciprocal talking and dialogue. The seminar series aims to capture some of
these voices in an edited book that can be useful for Pacific Islands’ educators and
stakeholders. Authors provide an array of educational issues that would enable educa-
tion systems, teachers and leaders to decide whether or not they could incorporate
suggestions for improvement made in this book. This book can provide reason for
purposeful interaction and dialogue among those who have interest in improving
students’ learning environments and experiences.
The Talanga is being explained as a Tongan term for purposeful conversation
(Ofanoa et al. 2015) as it is the title of the School of Education seminar series.
However, there are other terms that also depict similar sentiments of dialogue, inter-
action and collaboration such as the talanoa (Finau et al. 2011), which have both
Tongan and Fijian origins, which is a “conversation, a talk, an exchange of ideas,
be it formal or informal” (Vaioleti 2013, p. 192) or taleanoa, is Samoan and similar
to the talanoa which denotes critical conversations (Vaioleti 2013). The talanoa is
a widely used social research method by many Pacific Island scholars such as in
Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Niue, Hawai’i, the Cook Islands and Tonga (Johnston
2013). In Kiribati, there is the maneaba, which is central to its communities as a place
to discuss important matters, besides it being used as a court for community infringe-
ments, community entertainment and dancing, and a place where travellers can stop
1 Introduction: Contributing to Dialogue About Pacific Islands … 3

by for the night before they continue their journey (Sofield 2002). These and other
forms of Pacific methods of conversation are based on ensuring there is authentic
dialogue and these chapters are an extrapolation from the multiple conversations
and debates that occurred in the USP School of Education Talanga seminar series in
order that they are not only conversations but are also recorded. The conversations
and chapters in this book are inadvertently mostly from Fiji and Solomon Islands,
which may also depict the current composition of the USP School of Education
staffing.
What comprises quality education differs from author to author. According to
Patrinos et al. (2014), there are six A’s in quality education. The first A is assess-
ment that is continually benched-marked against other countries so that an education
system knows where it stands. The second A is autonomy which suggests empow-
ering schools to be competitive through ownership, resources and giving them voice.
The third A is accountability where the school and school leaders are held accountable
to parents and the community including the use of financial resources, vice versa. The
fourth A is attention to teachers as they are critical to the learning process by being
stringent on recruitment, professional development and in-service training to have
them continually being abreast with skills and knowledge. The fifth A is attention
to early childhood development which is evidenced to have influenced increased
educational success and adult productivity and the sixth A is attention to culture,
an often neglected element, but does have importance for the improved learning of
students. This edited book has covered all these elements of quality education in its
reflections to various degrees.
However, Levine (2013) stressed a grim picture on the quality of education in the
Pacific Islands by stating that “in many countries the quality of education has been
stagnant or has declined” (p. 8). There had been increased access to an education in
the Pacific Islands but the quality of education does not necessarily follow (Levine
2013). In other words, due to a global focus on increased access, there had been
quantitative improvements world over but qualitative improvements can be an issue
and an example this manifests itself is in children going up the school system unable
to read or do math (Patrinos et al. 2014). The future of the small island states of the
Pacific relies on them driving both quantitative and qualitative improvements in as
many facets of their education systems as much as possible, whether it be with school
leaders, the curriculum, parents, the community, or research and its importance in
providing evidence for policy and practice. Just because a policy and a directive is
being pushed by the United Nations, the Commonwealth, the World Bank, or other
global organisations, that Pacific Island nations should espouse them as it is and
uncritically. In terms of “policy transfer” (Mossberger and Wolman 2003, p. 428)
or “policy borrowing” (Phillips and Ochs 2003, p. 451), Pacific Island countries
(PICS) need to rationalise the effects such policy transfers from another jurisdiction.
Levine (2013) stressed that in the Pacific Islands when instruments and policies
are borrowed and often accompanied with external funding, contextual realities and
financial sustainability may not necessarily be considered and may end up increasing
the dependency that PICS have on major powers and organisations. Levine (2013)
further highlighted that on a per capita basis, PICS are the highest aid recipients in the
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