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THE LEGACY OF INDIAN INDENTURE
THE LEGACY OF INDIAN INDENTURE
Historical and Contemporary Aspects of
Migration and Diaspora

Edited by
MAURITS S. HASSANKHAN
LOMARSH RO OPNARINE
HANS RAMSOEDH
First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square,
Milton Park,
Abingdon, Oxon
OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2017 selection and editorial matter, Maurits S. Hassankhan,
Lomarsh Roopnarine and Hans Ramsoedh; individual chapters, the
contributors; and Manohar Publishers & Distributors
The right of Maurits S. Hassankhan, Lomarsh Roopnarine and
Hans Ramsoedh to be identified as the authors of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Print edition not for sale in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Pakistan or Bhutan)
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-138-28052-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-27202-3 (ebk)
Typeset in Minion Pro
by Ravi Shanker, Delhi 110 095
 Contents

Introduction 1

Part 1: Indenture in the Indian Ocean

and the Caribbean
1. Trans-Colonial Migration during East Indian Indentured
Servitude in British Guiana and Trinidad
Lomarsh Roopnarine 15
2. New Perspectives on the Origins of the ‘New System
of Slavery’

Richard B. Allen 37
3. Searching for the Lost Indentured Indians of St. Kitts
Kumar Mahabir 63
4. The Legacy of Indentured Labour and the
Mauritius Truth and Justice Commission:
A Missed Opportunity?
Vijayalakshmi Teelock 83

Part 2: Re-examining Indenture and

the Migration Experience
5. Elisabeth Bhugwandye Singh: A Surinamese–Guyanese
Female Voice in Migration History
Jerome Egger 105
6. Recharging the Ancestral Battery: Physical
and Spiritual Return to Bharat Mata
Brinsley Samaroo 127
7. East Indian Education in Nineteenth-century Trinidad:
Social Exclusion or Integration?
Vashti Singh 139
vi • contents

Part 3: Ethnicity and Politics

8. The Development of Hindustaniness in Suriname:
Reconstruction, Mobilization and Integration
Hans Ramsoedh 165
9. Ethnicity and Political Accommodation in Suriname,
1960-2000
Chan E.S. Choenni 195

Part 4: Health, Medicine and Spirituality

10. The Psychological Impact of Indentureship:
Then and Now
Sandili Maharaj-Ramdial 227
11. The Use of Protective Talismans by Indentured
Indians and their Descendants, with Reference
to Enslaved Africans
Shalima Mohammed 259

List of Contributors 291

Index 295
 Introduction

Background
This book is the second publication originating from the conference
Legacy of Slavery and Indentured Labour: Past, Present and Future,
which had been organized in June 2013 by the Institute of Graduate
Studies and Research (IGSR) of the Anton de Kom University of
Suriname, in collaboration with a number of government and non-
government organizations.1
The first aim of the conference was to connect historical specificities
of slavery, indentured labour and migration to contemporary issues
of globalization, diaspora, identity formation, nationalism and trans-
nationalism. A second aim of the conference was to promote new
perspectives and approaches in the study of forced and free migration
and their impact on society. By bringing scholars together from
various parts of the world – senior scholars as well as new promising
talents – the organizers of the conference wanted to stimulate ex-
change of ideas, set up new networks and strengthen existing ones.
Some questions to be answered during the conference were:

• What are the legacies of slavery and indentured labour in social,

economic, cultural, political fields?
• How did post-slavery identity formation occur in different
parts of the world in general?
• What has been the psychological impact of slavery and inden-
tured labour?

1
The partners who organized the conference were Institute of Social
Science Research Institute (IMWO), the National Archives Suriname (NAS),
the Advanced Teachers’ Training College (IOL), and the following cultural
organizations: NAKS, Federasi fu Afrikan Srananman, Cultural Union
Suriname (CUS), the National Foundation for Hindustani Immigration
(NSHI), the Association for the Commemoration of Indonesian Immigration
(VHJI) and the Committee 10th October. The conference was organized by a
subsidy of the Government of Suriname.
2 • introduction

• How are transnational identities developing in the contemporary

world?
• How is the process of identification related to the imaginary
relation with the country of origin and with other ‘partners in
distress’ in the diaspora?
• In the case of second migration or the twice-Diaspora, what is
perceived as country of origin, or in other words: what kind
of homeland perspectives do people have and what impact will
this have on their relation with the former homeland?
• In which ways did the various groups adapt to the new environ-
ment? What has been the policy or attitude of the receiving
countries or societies?
• How are localizing processes (‘Creolization’) expressed in mig-
rant cultures?
• What kind of transnational ties exist among descendants of
immigrants in the Caribbean? Are alternative transnational
identities in the Caribbean real or an imagination?
• How are transnational ties and identities recognized and insti-
tutionalized by the State in the former homelands?
• What has been the policy of the countries of origin regarding
their former citizens living in diaspora?
• How and why are local processes of identity formation related
to emotional and practical identification to the countries of
origin, and how do these countries feature in these processes?
• What are the social, economic, cultural and political conse-
quences of migration and diaspora in modern times?

The participants were invited to review their respective papers

and send them to the organizers of the conference. Some people did
not send their revised papers or had decided to publish their paper
elsewhere.
The conference organizers made a selection of the available papers
and grouped them according to topics. The result is that we have in
planning four independent volumes.
The first one is Legacy of Slavery and Indentured Labour: Historical
and Contemporary Issues in Suriname and the Caribbean, edited by
Maurits S. Hassankhan, Lomarsh Roopnarine, Cheryl White and
Radica Mahase. The second one is The Legacy of Indian Indenture:
Historical and Contemporary Aspects of Migration and Diaspora,
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 introduction • 3

edited by Maurits S. Hassankhan, Lomarsh Roopnarine and Hans

Ramsoedh. The third volume is titled Social and Cultural Dimensions
of Indian Indentured Labour and its Diaspora: Past and Present,
edited by Maurits S. Hassankhan, Lomarsh Roopnarine and Radica
Mahase. The last one is on a neglected area of the Indian diaspora and
is titled Indentured Muslims in the Diaspora: Identity and Belonging of
Minority Groups in Plural Societies, edited by Maurits S. Hassankhan,
Goolam Vahed and Lomarsh Roopnarine.

Structure of this Book

Structurally, the first volume on The Legacy of Indian Indenture:
Historical and Contemporary Aspects of Migration and Diaspora is
divided into four parts: (1) Indenture in the Indian Ocean and the
Caribbean; (2) Re-examining Indenture and Migration Experience;
(3) Ethnicity and Politics; and (4) Health, Medicine and Spirituality.
Each part comprises three to four chapters with similar themes as well
as a summary of intention, the intellectual significance, and quality of
conception and contribution. A summary of each part is as follows:

Part 1
This part deals with Indenture in the Caribbean and the Indian
Ocean and includes four diverse but interrelated chapters and
contributions. It reveals some impressive newly-emerging trends
in the study of indenture, essentially departing from the overused
neo-slave scholarship of indenture. For some time, historian Hugh
Tinker’s study of indenture as a new system of slavery went practically
unchallenged. However, in this part, not only new concepts are
explored and analysed but also it raises unavoidable questions on
previously published studies on indenture. Why is it, for example, that
indentured emigration has been perceived as a cyclical phenomenon
between India and the indentured colonies; why do indentured
historians generally ignore other forms of non-Indian indenture; why
do the small Indian population in the Indian indentured diaspora
continue to experience marginalization; and how come there
continues to be missed opportunities, like in Mauritius, in the study
of the descendants of indentured servants? These, along with other
questions, make this section rather complex and multifaceted.
4 • introduction

Lomarsh Roopnarine’s chapter on ‘Trans-Colonial Migration

during East Indian Indentured Servitude in British Guiana and
Trinidad’ departs from the ongoing thesis that migration during
indenture was principally cyclical between India and the indentured
Caribbean colonies. The chapter shows that migration during
indenture was trans-Caribbean, trans-Atlantic, as well as trans-
Pacific. Roopnarine argues that in spite of the restrictive ordinances in
the indenture system, some Indians challenged these policies in legal
and clandestine ways and migrated for better life opportunities. By
participating in different kinds of migration, Roopnarine argued that
Indians possessed a deeper understanding than previously thought of
their new bachelor-oriented indenture communities. The static view
of Indians being non-migratory during indenture is contradicted
by the decision of some to re-indenture themselves to a colony of
their choice thousands of miles away from their homeland with
the obvious intent to profit from that decision. By doing so, Indians
were historically linked through a global network of international
indentured labour migration.
In his article ‘New Perspectives on the Origins of the “New System
of Slavery” ’, Richard Allen posits that the origins of the indentured
labour system that flourished between the 1830s and 1920s are usually
traced to the desire of British abolitionists to hasten the end of slavery
by demonstrating the superiority of ‘free’ over slave labour in the
production of tropical commodities for imperial markets. Scholarship
on this ‘great experiment’ with the use of free agricultural labourers
emphasizes the role that developments in Britain and the Caribbean
played in this system’s emergence. Allen argues, however, that this
system’s origins are to be found in the development of increasingly
interconnected slave, convict, and indentured labour trades in
the Indian Ocean during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. More specifically, his chapter reveals that the migration of
some 2.2 million African, Asian, and other non-European indentured
labourers throughout and beyond the colonial plantation world began
30 years earlier than previously thought. Allen maintains that it was
the Chinese rather than Indian labourers who were the initial focus of
interest in using indentured labourers, and that the British East India
Company corporate-state played a significant role in this system’s
early development. Allen’s argument challenges researchers to rethink
the whole notion that indenture began with Indian labourers and
 introduction • 5

urges eloquently that ‘the challenge before us is to probe much more

deeply and perceptively into the ways in which the complex dialogue
within and between these worlds shaped the nature and dynamics of
a global migrant labour system, the consequences of which continue
to resonate in our own day and age’. The message is that it is not wise
to study labour systems in isolation of each other.
Kumar Mahabir’s chapter on ‘Searching for the Lost Indentured
Indians of St. Kitts’ demonstrates that most studies on the history of
East Indians in the Caribbean have focused on countries (Suriname,
Guyana and Trinidad) with large Indian populations. Yet, Mahabir
recognizes that some studies have been done on the smaller islands
such as Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent with smaller Indian
populations and on Guadeloupe, Martinique where for certain reasons
Indian presence seemed to disappear. Among these small islands, the
indentured Indians of St. Kitts have not been examined thoroughly.
A personal visit to St. Kitts in 2006 to search for the descendants of
indentured Indians revealed that there were/are no traces of them in
the form of physiological features, names, food, or other remnants of
cultural legacy. After the emancipation of African slaves, about 337
Indian indentured labourers were brought from India to St. Kitts to
work in the sugar cane plantations. Though they numbered only 5
per cent of the population during the 1860s, their descendants have
now mysteriously disappeared, certainly not altogether through inter-
marriage. Mahabir finally explains the disappearance of Indians on St.
Kitts by using personal interviews, genealogical accounts and archival
records.
Vijaya Teelock’s chapter ‘The Legacy of Indentured Labour and the
Mauritius Truth and Justice Commission: The Missed Opportunity’
is a revised version of her keynote speech at the conference. It
focuses on a presidential commission in Mauritius established in
2009 to investigate the history and legacy of slavery and indenture
and to make recommendations for the reconciliation of social justice.
Teelock examines how the indenture period was considered, discusses
the approaches and themes adopted and what descendants had to
say about the evolution of one of the enduring legacies of indenture,
the caste system. With regard to caste, Teelock is convinced that the
practice of caste remains a big secret in Mauritius that impedes the
opportunity and freedom to discuss and research it. In her interviews,
Teelock realizes that ‘almost every interviewee consisted of negating
6 • introduction

the existence of caste in Mauritius or refusing to speak about it. Many

among interviewees even expressed fear to speak freely about it and
requested anonymity. Others requested that part of the interview
not be recorded or even erased.’ Teelock’s chapter raises one of the
most interesting questions regarding the social structure of Indians
in former indentured colonies, and that is, does the caste structure
exist? She concludes among others that politicians use caste to achieve
political gains. According to her the process of changing castes,
bourgeoisification and brahmanization in the Hindu community is
moving at a fast pace and for many their real origins should not be
revealed to the public. She advocates the removal of restrictions on
the free use of indentured records in the Mahatma Gandhi Institute
in Mauritius, because, as she states ‘without free access to documents
we cannot study the history and do justice to the memory of all
indentured immigrants’.

Part 2
The three chapters in this part re-examine indenture and migration
experience and show succinctly that in spite of the fact that the
study of indenture has received enormous attention from scholars of
various backgrounds and interests, there are many areas that need to
be re-examined and explored. The chapters in this section re-examine
three broad themes in indenture: personal narratives of indentured
labourers, the continuous connection between the Caribbean and
India as well as education and Christianization of Indians in Trinidad.
The result is impressive. The analysis of personal accounts or voices
of indentured servants themselves certainly provides an alternative
perception to archival information written mostly by the organizers
of indenture. Likewise, migration has been a continuous aspect of
indentured life and beyond but for some reason Indo-migration
has not been thoroughly studied. Moreover, the role of missionaries
among Indian immigrants has been lost in the larger history or big
picture in the study of indenture.
Jerome Egger’s chapter ‘Elisabeth Bhugwandye Singh: A
Surinamese–Guyanese Female Voice in Migration History’ between
1958 and 1961 shows how and why Elisabeth Bhugwandye Singh sat
down on three different occasions to write her memoirs. She wrote
about her family and growing up in Suriname at the end of the
 introduction • 7

nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. Egger believes

and argues that this is one of the few voices of an Indian woman whose
father and grandmother came to Suriname as indentured labourers
which in itself made a valuable testimony and contribution to peasant
life in a small country. Egger shows cleverly, in her own voice, how
Bhugwandye Singh described a colonial society where different cul-
tures had to find ways to live together. The writings of Singh provide
a picture not only of the way a child saw her surroundings but also
the reflections of an older woman who had left her country of birth to
live in the neighbouring colony of British Guyana. Her descriptions
of the tragedies in her family as well as the more personal aspects of a
girl whose mother was Christian not Hindu, and who made her go to
a Catholic school in the capital, are an important addition to the lives
of (former) indentured labourers.
Brinsley Samaroo’s chapter ‘Recharging the Ancestral Battery:
Physical and Spiritual Return to Bharat Mata’ emphasize that during
the period 1838 to 1917 an estimated 543,596 girmityas (agreement
signers) were transported to the British, French, Dutch and Danish
Caribbean to labour primarily on the sugar plantations. About one
quarter of these immigrants returned to India, most of whom regretted
that decision and sought to re-indenture themselves for a second and
even third time up to 1917. Samaroo maintains that for the majority
of these labourers who chose to remain and for their descendants
the memory of India was always on their minds as they struggled to
combine Oriental ways with that of their Creole-Caribbean society.
Rahul Bhattacharya, an Indian writer, noticed this longing for India
during an extended sojourn in Guyana. In his novel The Sly Company
of People Who Care (2011) he clearly explained this nostalgia for the
ancestral place. An Indo-Guyanese host laments: ‘And yet brother we
find that Indians do not consider us to be Indians’ (p. 99). The Indian
narrator finds this puzzling; their Indianness was stronger than his
own: ‘They longed for it, I had no such longing. I was wearied by it
and in fact in flight from it’ (p. 100). In this regard, Samaroo examines
the past and continuing interest in India by Indo-Caribbean people
and focuses on the desire of indentured Indians and their families
to return by analysing the last return of ex-indentured servants from
British Guyana in 1955. Samaroo then focuses on the more recent
trade links which have become stronger: the Caribbean student trek
to Indian universities and the tourist visits to India and the search
8 • introduction

for roots. Finally, the chapter examines India’s recent ascendancy as a

global power and the effects of that event on diasporic thinking.
Like Samaroo, Vashti Singh’s chapter has a Trinidad focus: ‘East
Indian Education in Nineteenth-century Trinidad: Social Exclusion
or Integration?’ Singh examines East Indians’ commitment to religion,
culture and identity as new indentured immigrants in British colonial
Trinidad and explains the marked difference in their orientation
towards agriculture and education. Singh identifies east Indians
as non-competitors in education within a class-based and racially
segmented colonial society. The chapter demonstrates how issues of
group identity, segregation and social exclusion emerge. An integral
question, therefore, is that of east Indian integration into Trinidad
society through education. The researcher engages discussion around
a conceptual framework for exploring the continuum that exists from
social exclusion to integration. The historical analysis begins with
the arrival in Trinidad of the first group of east Indian indentured
labourers from India in 1845 and ends in 1900. The key focus of the
chapter is to assess the adequacy of the Secular Ward School System
and the Canadian Presbyterian Mission schools to include east
Indians in education as a means towards their participation in and
integration into the wider society. In light of the exclusion-integration
continuum, the researcher directs attention to an unsolved question
at the close of the nineteenth century: How would the State provide
for the education of east Indians to facilitate the process of social
integration? The point is made that in the integration process dif-
ferent groups must be allowed to retain their own distinctive iden-
tities. It was not until the mid-twentieth century that non-Christian
denominations, namely Hindus and Muslims, gained state recognition
to build primary schools. Their entry into the educational mainstream
facilitated social integration, although to a limited extent in schools
of their own.

Part 3
The third part in this volume focuses on ethnicity and politics. In
segmented societies like Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad & Tobago
the key question in the formation and sharing of political power is:
who governs, who is governed? Institutional politics and political
mobilization in these countries are mainly ethnically based and
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