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 Periodic Table of the Elements
lA VIIA VIIIA
I .ll08 I.OOX -Ul03

l H H He
I IIA IIIA IVA VA Vii\ I 2
6.9-1 1 9.012 10.811 12.0 I I ).U)()7 15.999 IX.998 20.179

2 Li Be B C N 0 F Ne
3 -I 5 6 7 8 9 10
22.990 2-U05 26.982 2lUJR6 30.97-1 32.06 35.-153 39.948

3 Na Mg Al Si p s Cl Ar
11 12 1118 \VB VB VIB VllB i - Vlll - - , 1B JIB 13 14 15 16 17 18
W.098 40.08 44.956 47,90 50.942 51 ,996 54.938 55.847 58.933 58.71 63.5-16 65.37 69.72 72.59 74 ,922 78.96 79 .90-l 83.80

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
85.-l68 87.62 88.906 91.22 92.906 95.94 98.906 101.07 102.91 106.-1 107.87 112.41 114.82 I 18.69 121.7S 12760 126 9() 13 1.30

5 Rb Sr y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
.n 38 39 -W ➔I 42 43 44 45 46 -47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
l .'2.91 1:l.7.3~ 138.91 ~ 178.-19 180.95 IK:'-85 186.2 190.2 192.22 195.()1) 196.97 200.59 20-1.37 207.2 208.98 (209) (2 10} (222 )

6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
(223) 226.03 (227) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) l266J (269) (272) (277)
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 11 2

I
1-10, 12 1-10.91 1-14.24 ( 1-15) 150.-l 151.96 157.'.lS 158.93 162.50 IM.9J 167.'.lo 168.93 173.0-1 174.97
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
j~ 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 §
2.12.04 231.03 238.03 237.05 (244} (2-13) (247) (247) (25 1> (2S-1) (257) (256) (255) (257)
Th Pa u Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 IOI 102 103
ai)

--
aii)

- INTRODUCTORY
--
I ll)

--
aj
CHEMISTRY
MODULES
--
ail

a ii
* ELEVENTH EDITION *

mi
~
mit
~
~

Anthony J. Pappas
Marta E. Goicoechea-Pappas

XanEdu
 •
•

.
•
•
•
•
•
•'
'
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This document has been printed directly from the authors' electronic file. '•
Copyright©2018, 2016, 2015, 2008, 2003, 2000, 1997, 1996, 1993, 1992,
1990 by Anthony J. Pappas and Marta E. Goicoechea-Pappas •
Eleventh Edition
•
All rights reserved. No part of this book may reproduced or distributed in any
form or by any means. or stored in a database retrieval system without the
written permission of the author.
For information, contact the authors at Miami Dade College, Chemistry
Department. 1101 1 S.W. 104 St.; Miami, FL 33176.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 l

ISBN 978-1-50669-856-4

Xan Edu
530 Great Road
Acton, MA 01720
www.xanedu.com
 1
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study of chemistry will provide you, the student, with the opportunity to
study certain abstract concepts and to learn new problem-solving techniques
necessary in understanding chemical phenomena.
This modular study guide was created with several purposes in mind:
1. To provide students with a brief summary of those topics that are emphasized
both in lecture and examjnations.
2. To provide exercises that are sirrular in scope to those used in examinations.
The exercises are also intended to provide you - the student - with an
opporturuty to master the topics that are covered in each module and that
constitute the course competencies.
3. To emphasize the importance of problem solving. No matter what your career
goals are, learning how to solve problems is indispensable; with this in mind ,
many of the problems provided have been designed to stimulate your
intellectual curiosity and to encourage analytical reasoning and thinking.
We are more than willing to give consideration to any feedback and thus
welcome your comments as to the usefulness of this modular study guide , to
any suggestions that you may have, and to any errors or ambiguities that have
been inadvertently overlooked.
The free and open source program - Jmol - was used to construct the molecular
geometries used in this study guide.
We would gratefully like to acknowledge the support of a Wolfson Minigrant in
the preparation of this manuscript. We would also like to especially thank several
of our colleagues (Larry Bray, Ana A. Ciereszko, Eileen Delgado Johann ,
Georgina C. Hart, Michael McGauley, Barry Moss, Maria E. Tarafa, Joan Lee, and
Dionne Dickson) and students at Miami Dade College for providing corrections,
consultations, and/or suggestions for the improvement of this manuscript. We
would also like to thank Sally Jacobson , who input the initial manuscript into the
computer, for her patience and perseverance.

Anthony J. Pappas
Marta E. Goicoechea-Pappas
-- ----------------------------------
LIST OF MODULES
Module Page
Rounding Off Numbers , Scientific Notation, Significant
l 1-1 to 1-10
Figures and Powers of I0
2 Mathematical Operations Involving Powers of Ten 2-1 to 2-7
3 Measurements and Conversions - Part I 3-1 to 3-10
4 Measurements and Conversions - Part II 4-1 to 4-14
5 Introduction to Matter: Elements and Compounds 5-1 to5-25
6 Electronic Structure and Chemical Periodicity 6-1 to 6-20
7 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry 7-1 to 7-22
Writing and Predicting Chemical Formulas, Oxidation • I.f r
8 Numbers and Nomenclature 8-1 to 8-20

Calculations Involving Elements and Compounds -

9 9-1 to 9-21
Composition Stoichiometry
JO Balancing Chemical Equations and Reaction Stoichiometry I0- I to I0- I8
11
12
Chemical Reactions
Solutions and Solution Stoichiometry
ll -l tol l-18
12-1 to 12-14
••: =-
• r,,

~
LIST OF APPENDICES
A,ppen 1x page
Al Metric Prefixes and Conversions Al -I

A2 Sofobility Rules and Electromotive Series A2-1

• C
A3 Supplemental Problems for Modules 2, 3 and 4 A3-l toA3-2 a C
A4
AS
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Practicing Algebraic Manipulations
A4-l to A4-2
AS-I toAS-3
•••
a•• I

A6
A7
A8
Practice Questions for Final Exam
Practice Multiple Choice Questions
Module Summary
A6-l to A6-8
A7-1 toA7-29
A8-I to A8-26
•
a>
I ◄
...
>◄

A9 Mastery Exercises A9-l to A9-42

II
 SUPPLEMENTARY PODCASTS

To access the free supplementary podcasts that have been developed for some of the
topics discussed in this course visit iTunesU. In the SEARCH FIELD in iTunesU type
"Miami Pappas or Goicoechea-Pappas" and a list of all podcasts developed for this
course will appear. You may either download the podcasts to your computer, iPhone ,
and/or iPod or you may watch them directly from iTunes.

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 PRELUDE
Chemistry is that branch of science (systematic study of the structure and
behavior of the natural and physical world by way of
performing experiments and making observations)
that deals the composi tion , structure and properties of
matter (an ything that has mass and occupies space).
The ancient premise was that everything was composed
of Earth, W ater, Air, and Fire (Greek Classical Elements). Th.is premise has been
superceded by the contemporary view that all matter is made up of one or more
~~'if~~@{J~~ than one of the more than 110 elements
(substances that can't be broken down into
simpler substances which are the p1imary
constituents of all matter) that are found in
the Periodic Table (a table which displays
- • .... . ,
n.r-.c~
. ... < ...
., - ,.. ...-
-'-c-•ar.r.~
lr"•.f'
..
•
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...
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•
.....
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chemical elements).

Chemists, as well as all scientists, use a systematic approach (i.e., scientific

method) in their investigations. It is through this approach that the many
amazing advances in chemistry have been made . Basically. the scientific
method e ntails making systematic observations and performing experiments
so that the formulation, testing, and/or modification of a hyporhesis (i.e ..
proposed reasoned ex.planation) can be made.

The Latin expression Nanos gigantum humeris insidentes basically conveys

that intellectual gain s are built upon the work / research
performed by notable thinkers of the past . One s uch notable
thinker from the past, w hi ch is called the father of modern
c hemistry , is Antoine Lavoisier (1743 - 1794). Lavoisier stated
the first version of the law of conservation of mass, recognized and named
oxygen and hydrogen , introduced the metric system, wrote the first
 .•
.•
extensive list of elements, and helped reform chemical nomenclature. In thi s
and other chemistry courses you will further be exposed to the contribution
..•-
ill!

-""
that other scientists have made in advancing the discipline of chemistry ,
which has been traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or
11
the general field of material being studied. The five 11 main disciplines /
branches of chemistry are:

--..
""
..-..
• Organic Chemistry - deals with carbon containing substances.

• Inorganic chemistry - deals with substances not containing carbon.

..•
• Physical Chemistry - deals with the description of the theoretical basis of
the behavior of matter and energy.

• Analytical Chemistry - deals with the development and use of techniques

•..
..•
that help to identify and quantify the amount of material present in a
sample.

• Biochemistry - deals with the composition and changes in living species.

At first you may think that you are in a mathematics course. This is because
for o ne to truly become proficient in chemistry, one needs to first master
..••
basic mathematical concepts. Once you have had the opportunity to master
••
several mathematical concepts, units of measurement and convers ions - you
will be guided through the rest of the competencies (e.g., introduction to
matter, electronic and molecular structure , composition and reaction
.•
stoichiometry, chemical periodicity, nomenclature, reactions, solutions and ••
solution stoichiometry) that make up this course.

T he following puzzle is provided to help you review some of the main ideas
••
discussed in this prelude. ••
••
••
II
~
•
•
 2

3 4

7 8

Across
7. a systematic approach that scientists use in their investigations that
entails making observations, performing experiments and formulating ,
testing and/or modifying a hypothesis (2 words)
9. substance that can't be broken down into substances that are the primary
constituents of all matter

Down
l. a proposed reasoned explanation
2. branch of science that deals with the composition, structure and
properties of matter
3. father of modern chemistry
4. branch of chemistry that deals with carbon containing substances
5. _ __ _ , Water, Air and Fire are the four Classical Greek Elements
6. branch of chemistry that deals with non-carbon containing substances
8. anything that has mass and occupies space

Ill
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Introqyctorx Chemistry I - Rounding Off, Sig Figs. and Powers of 10
ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND
POWERS OF TEN
I. The Number Line
Many students have a difficult time working with negative numbers.
The number line shown below provides a great visual aid to help you
understand the magnitude (i.e., numerical value) of numbers.
N u mbers are getting smaller.
The more negative the number, the smaller the numbe r.

-4 -3 -2 - I 0 2 3 4

Numbers are getting bigger.

II. Rounding Off Numbers

The following are the rules that need to be
followed when rounding off a number.
Examples of each rule are provided below
showing how to round each example to
the hundredth place.
Examples
Rules Number Answer
1. If the digit after cut-off point is less than 5;
I .2014 1.20
then, the digit before the cut-off point
0. 99j46 0.99
remains the same.

2. If the digit after the cut-off point is greater 0.99j9 1.00

than 5 or 5 followed by digits that are not
1 .29~5 1 1. 3 0
all zeros , then the digit before the cut-off
point is increased by one. 1.29j501 1.30

3. If the digit after the cut-off point is only a 5

or 5 followed by ONLY zeros , then:
a) If the digit before the cut-off point is odd, 1. 99 ~ 2.00
then round this digit up. 2. 17 j500 2.1 8
i
b) If the digit before the cut-off point is I. 98 !5 1.98
even, then retain this digit. 2 .00 [5 00 2 .00

A. J. Pappas and M.E. Goicoechea-Pappas 1-1

lntroduc,to~ Chemistry I - Rounding Off, Sig Eigs. and Powers of lO
Problem 1: Round off each of the following numbers to the first decimal
place (i.e., to the tenth place):
a) 0.125 b) 25.151 c) 3.250
d) 7.150 e) 6.7501 t) 7.755
g) 3.95 h) 3.95 1 i) 17 .05
j) 99.051 k) 199.95 I) 199.949

III. Scientific Notation (SN), Exponential Notation, and Powers of Ten

When numbers are very small or large, it is more convenient to write those
numbers in exponential notation or more specifically in scientific notation.
Regardless of a number's magnitude, all numbers can be expressed in
scientific notation. A number written specifically in scientific notation has
the following general form:
Exponent
Any number (Power o f Ten)
from± I - 9 Any non-decimal number
'-... [Bl. /
X lOX
Coefficient

For example , J.2 1 x 10 3 , 2.9x 10·4 , and-1. x 10°.

In exponential notation the number before the power of ten (i.e., the
coefficient) does not have to be from 1 to 9 (e.g., 12.31 x 1056) .
The following are examples that illustrate what a number rai sed to a
power of ten means:
10° = 1
Positive Exponents Negative Exponents

101 = IO 10-1 = -1 = 0.1

10

102 = 10 X 10 = 100 10-2 = 2.. x 2-

10 10
= -100
- = o.o1
1

To convert numbers into scientific notation , use the following guidelines:

a) As you move the decimal place to the left (i .e., make the coefficient
smaller), the power of ten (i.e., exponent) must increase by the same
amount. For example,
Making coefficient smaller Exponent must get iarRer
by 3 powers of ten by 3 powers of ten

1 7 5 0 .Q = 1~. 0 " 3 2 I
X JQO = l.75QQ X 103
/

A. J. Pappas and M.E. Goicoechea-Pappas l-2

Introductory Chemioo I - Rounding Off._Sig Fi.g,s. and Powers....oU.Q
b) As you move the decimal place to the right (i .e., make the coefficient
larger), the power of ten (i .e., exponent) must decrease by the same
amount. For example,
Making coefficient larger Exponent must get smaller
by 2 powers of ten by 2 powers of ten
/2
0. 050 =0.0 50
"
\....A.J-
I 2
X 10 O = 5.0

Proble m 2: Write each of the fo llowing numbers in scientific notation (SN):

X 10 ·

a) 22 , 400. b) 0.007 c) 8,000.

d) 22.4 e) 1.9 f) 0.00035
g) 0.00905 h) 0 .273 i) 0 .000000029

j) 12.3 k) 892. x 105 I) 5.72x 10-2

m) 0 .00072 X } Q-8 n) 1982. X 10-9 0) 0 .00200 X 106

p) 0.02010 X )0-9 q) -39.152 X 108 r) -0.00 198 X 10-lO

IV . Inputting Numbers Having Exponential Notation Into a Calculator

Depending on your calculator one of the followinl keyl is used to input
numbers written in exponential notation ⇒ EXP EE x l0x l I I I.
The following is an example of how to input numbers written in
exponential notation into several types of typical calculator.

Number Keys to Press Calculator Display

1.2 X JQ- 3 OJ □ [I] I EXP 1 1 <> I II] I 1.2 -03 I

] .2 X 10-3 [I) □ [TI [ill ~ w I l .2"03 1

1.2 X 10- 3 [I] □ [TI ~ [TI] [I] I 1.2 ,.,o-031

V. Significant Figures, Accuracy and Precision

Significant figures , abbreviated as SF or sig figs, indicate how precisely
measurements have been made. In a measurement, it provides the number
of digits that are reported which are believed to be correct by the person
pe rforming the measurement. The last number in the measurement is
estimated.

A. J . Pappas and M.E. Goicoechea-Pappas 1-3

 • 4

Introductory Chemistry J- RQuruling Off, Sig Figs..._aud_Fowers of IO

Precision is how closely individual measurements agree with each other and
provides an indication of the level of detail of a measurement. A measurement
in which more significant figures can be procured is more precise.

A( I I
0 cm
11[ Ii I" ii Ii I , 'f ') I Length of Paper Clip Using Ruler A and B
II II I
3
2.45 cm (3 SF) More ,,.,;,,.
t measurement.

i
Estimated Digit

8
( C 1J I

set
2~cm 12sF] ~;:::: : : ,
0 cm Not Drawn 3
lo Scale

Accuracy is how closely a measured value agrees with value.

precise,

••
neither precise and
accurate or precise but not accurate accura1e

To find how many significant figures (SF) a number has:

1) locate the first nonzero digit (start from left
2) then starting with the first nonzero digit -
~ right)
First non-zero
dit
0.002500
<D'.?>®@
••
count the number of digits the number has.
A number has no units and can be used to compu te or describe
measurement. Quantities represent specific amounts which have units.
This number has 4 SF

a
.-
..e
For example, 12 is a number; whereas, 12 grams is a quantity.
Zeros at the end of a number that has no decimal point may or may not be
significant. For example, the quantity 2,200 g may have 2, 3 or 4 SF. It is
for this reason that a decimal point must be included if zeros are significant.
·-=
·=
Thus, 2,200. g would have 4 SF. To express that 2 ,200 g had only 3 sig
3
figs; then, write this number in scientific notation: 2.20 x 10 g.
Numbers that are exact, have an infinite (00) or By definition <D yea,.. hn@ months
•
unlimited number of significant figures. Exact
numbers come from 3 sources: a) counting,
b) defined quantities, or c) an integral number The equation used to
d~rerminc the
that is part of an equation. NOTE: "Per" A hand with
volume of a sphere is

means out of exactly one (e.g., 50 miles per ® fingers

® 1t r(3l
@

hour). A "percent" means out of exactly 100. Conside.-i ng the source from which
they are coming from. each circled
number is an exact number having
A number that is said to be inexact is one that an oo number of SF.
is obtained when a measurement is made
with a measuring device (e.g., ruler, balance, beaker, graduated cylinder, etc.).
A. J. Pappas and M.E . Goicoechea-Pappas 1-4
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