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Multiracial Identity and Racial
Politics in the United States
Multiracial Identity
and Racial Politics in the
United States
Natalie Masuoka
3
3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
CONTENTS
Conclusion. Multiracial and Beyond: Racial
Formation in the Twenty-First Century 169
Appendices 187
Notes 213
References 231
Index 249
TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables
Figures
xii | Acknowledgements
Of course, my final thanks goes to my family. My parents, the Tygh
family and the extended LA-based Masuoka family have long been the
cheerleaders of my life who have offered support and words of encour-
agement (and many times a bed to sleep on). This book is dedicated to
Gordon, who has been the perfect partner and is the one who is always
there to push me to stay positive through life’s many challenges.
Acknowledgements | xiii
1 Identity Choice
Changing Practices of Race and
Multiracial Identification
I
n 2000, the US Census Bureau made a small change to the wording of
its racial identification question. Question number 6 on the census form
asked: “What is this person’s race? Mark one or more races to indicate
what this person considers himself/herself to be.” The directions mark one
or more replaced the words “fill one circle for the race” that had been used
in the prior census.1 When census data were released, officials found that
more than 6.8 million Americans, or 2.4% of the population, opted to check
multiple races. This mark-one-or-more option on the racial identification
question was again employed in the 2010 census. Reports show that, over
this decade, the number of Americans who checked multiple races grew
by over 30%: to slightly over 9 million, or 2.9% of the population. These
statistics suggest that the population who identifies with two or more racial
categories, or what will be referred to in this book as multiracial, is growing
faster than those who identify as either (only) white or (only) black.
Reports such as these offer a sense that the multiracial population is
a new demographic subpopulation in the United States. Today, the fed-
eral government distinguishes those who checked multiple races as a sep-
arate racial group and labels them the “two or more races population.”
Statistical tables distributed by the Census Bureau that present data on the
racial diversity of the country include the two-or-more-races population as
a unique group alongside the categories of “white,” “black,” and “Asian.”
Rising rates of interracial marriage combined with documented popula-
tions of individuals who report to be multiple races lead many to equate
multiracial individuals with other new populations such as immigrants.
In the mainstream media, multiracial Americans are framed as having
their own lifestyles, challenges, and characteristics. For example, start-
ing in February 2011, the New York Times began running a regular series
called “Race Remixed” that primarily highlighted the unique challenges
of young adults who identify as multiracial. USA Today’s website also
features a section on race and the Census that includes stories such as
“Multiracial No Longer Boxed in by the Census”2 and “Attitudes toward
Multiracial Americans Evolving.”3
Yet, while some herald the rise of multiracial identity as a new advance
in society, the fact is that racial mixing is an enduring feature in the United
States. Marriage between partners of two different racial groups has indeed
been outlawed for most of American history, but intimate interracial rela-
tionships have existed since the first settlers arrived to the Americas in the
sixteenth century.4 The notion that different racial, ethnic, or other ances-
tral peoples did not reproduce across group lines does not square with
demographic evidence: demographic simulations estimate that all human
beings alive today likely share a common ancestor (Rhode et al. 2004).
Moreover, Anthony Perez and Charles Hirschman (2009) report that most
native-born Americans have ancestors from different parts of the world.
F. James Davis (1991) estimates that at least 70% of African Americans
are of mixed racial background. Moreover, colonization and other migra-
tion patterns lead to the interracial mixture of immigrants even before they
arrive to the United States. Take, for example, today’s Latino immigrant
population. Latinos represent descendants of those Europeans, Asians, and
Africans who intermingled with the indigenous peoples in the Americas
(Menchaca 2001; Rodriguez 2000). Thus, the contention that multiracial
Americans today represent a new demographic development often fails
to acknowledge the complex history of interracial interactions that have
occurred inside and outside the United States.
It is indeed true that interracial marriage rates in the United States are
rising and that the children of these marriages is a growing population in
the country. (Wang 2012). However, the typical emphasis on the novelty
of interracial mixing in this country does not fully capture the true signif-
icance of what today’s multiracial population reflects about race relations
in twenty-first-century America. These views take an ahistorical approach
to understanding race relations because they focus only on the current cir-
cumstances rather than considering how past practices and long-standing
institutions influence those relationships documented in today’s society.
These typical approaches thus deflect our attention from the more impor-
tant lessons and insights that we can and should draw from the documenta-
tion of a multiracial population in today’s society. Multiracial individuals
Identity Choice | 3
1991). In many ways, those Americans who use one established racial
identity to describe themselves rely on historic racial norms to define
their relevant assignment into a racial group and embrace an identity that
matches that racial classification.
Because it is argued that those who self-identify as multiracial do not
follow historic social norms and instead assert their preferred multiracial
identity, these individuals most clearly demonstrate what will be called in
this book identity choice, or the expression of race as a reflection of personal
identity. But self-identified multiracial individuals are not the only individu-
als today who practice identity choice. Americans who identify with only
one established racial category have also, in many ways, made a choice to
express a particular racial identity. However, for multiracial individuals, their
decision to express race as a hybrid is in distinct contrast to historic practices
and represents a new and modern form of racial identity. Moreover, identify-
ing as multiracial is a behavior that social scientists are increasingly able to
document and systematically analyze because of the way we collect data on
race today. For this reason, multiracial identities will be the key case used to
understand the formation and implications of identity choice.
This book proposes and develops a distinctive approach to understand-
ing and interpreting the empirical findings presented in the forthcoming
chapters. Readers should understand “multiracial” as a form of self-
identification that individuals assert when there exist opportunities to do
so. Therefore, rather than accept an individual’s race as a given fact, this
approach to the term encourages readers to instead question why some
choose to identify as multiracial while others adopt an identity attached
to (only) one established racial category, in particular white, black,
Asian American, or Latino.5 This approach emphasizes the importance
of explaining multiracial identification as in contrast with attachments to
established racial categories.
It should also be noted that this book makes a specific empirical choice to
focus primarily on the ways in which Americans report their race on official
forms such as the census and in private data collection efforts such as public
opinion surveys. This is one of many arenas where individuals can promote
and represent their racial identities, but this particular context is consequen-
tial because these types of data collection efforts are well publicized and are
often framed as important “facts” about the population that in turn can influ-
ence how Americans understand the social features of their nation (see also
Prewitt 2013; Yanow 2002). This book thus offers a unique perspective on
how to interpret the empirical patterns that are often reported about multira-
cial individuals and those who identify with one established racial category.
This book will begin by employing historical analysis to explain why the
rise of identity choice appears at the end of the twentieth century. Today, it
may be common to find expressions of multiracial identities in many dif-
ferent areas of public life such as popular culture, the arts, and even polit-
ical campaigns. But multiracial identities are increasingly visible because
Americans are living in a political and cultural environment that allows for
the expression of these identities. Central to this argument is the historical
claim that Americans have witnessed a cultural shift from viewing race
as a process primarily of assigned classification to believing that race can
be primarily a product of identification. This cultural embrace of race as
identification is, in many ways, consequential to how we understand the
implications of all racial categories, but has provided a unique opening for
the expression of multiracial identification.
If we first begin by reviewing the origins and political purpose of race in
the United States, we recognize that, historically, race has been practiced
as a process of classification: a racial category is assigned to individuals.
Identity Choice | 5
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