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T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f

H I STOR IC A L
P HON OL O G Y
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The Oxford Handbook of

HISTORICAL
PHONOLOGY
Edited by
PATRICK HONEYBONE
and
JOSEPH SALMONS

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,
United Kingdom
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© editorial matter and organization Patrick Honeybone and Joseph Salmons 2015
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 Contents

The Contributors ix

PA RT I I N T ROD U C T ION A N D C ON T E X T
1 Introduction: Key Questions for Historical Phonology 3
Patrick Honeybone and Joseph Salmons
2 The Early History of Historical Phonology 11
Robert W. Murray
3 Structuralist Historical Phonology: Systems in Segmental Change 32
Joseph Salmons and Patrick Honeybone

PA RT I I E V I DE N C E A N D M E T HOD S
I N H I STOR IC A L P HON OL O G Y
4 Phonological Reconstruction 49
Anthony Fox
5 Establishing Phonemic Contrast in Written Sources 72
Donka Minkova
6 Interpreting Diffuse Orthographies and Orthographic Change 86
J. Marshall Unger
7 Interpreting Alphabetic Orthographies: Early
Middle English Spelling 100
Roger Lass
8 The Role of Typology in Historical Phonology 121
Martin Kümmel
9 Computational and Quantitative Approaches
to Historical Phonology 133
Brett Kessler
vi   Contents

10 Simulation as an Investigative Tool in Historical Phonology 149

Andrew Wedel
11 Using Corpora of Recorded Speech for Historical Phonology 164
Warren Maguire
12 Exploring Chain Shifts, Mergers, and Near-Mergers
as Changes in Progress 173
Matthew J. Gordon

PA RT I I I T Y P E S OF P HON OL O G IC A L C HA N G E
13 Basic Types of Phonological Change 193
András Cser
14 Analogy and Morphophonological Change 205
David Fertig
15 Change in Word Prosody: Stress and Quantity 219
Aditi Lahiri
16 Tonoexodus, Tonogenesis, and Tone Change 245
Martha Ratliff
17 The Role of Prosodic Templates in Diachrony 262
Laura Catharine Smith and Adam Ussishkin

PA RT I V F U N DA M E N TA L C ON T ROV E R SI E S
I N P HON OL O G IC A L C HA N G E
18 First Language Acquisition and Phonological Change 289
Paul Foulkes and Marilyn Vihman
19 How Diachronic is Synchronic Grammar?
Crazy Rules, Regularity, and Naturalness 313
Tobias Scheer
20 An I-Language Approach to Phonologization and Lexification 337
Mark Hale, Madelyn Kissock, and Charles Reiss
21 Lexical Diffusion in Historical Phonology 359
Betty S. Phillips
 Contents   vii

22 Amphichronic Explanation and the Life Cycle

of Phonological Processes 374
Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero
23 Individuals, Innovation, and Change 400
Mark J. Jones
24 The Role of Experimental Investigation in Understanding
Sound Change 410
Alan C. L. Yu

PA RT V T H E OR E T IC A L H I S TOR IC A L
P HON OL O G Y
25 Natural Phonology and Sound Change 431
Patricia J. Donegan and Geoffrey S. Nathan
26 Preference Laws in Phonological Change 450
Robert Mailhammer, David Restle, and Theo Vennemann
27 Articulatory Processing and Frequency of Use in Sound Change 467
Joan Bybee
28 Evolutionary Phonology: A Holistic Approach
to Sound Change Typology 485
Juliette Blevins
29 Rule-Based Generative Historical Phonology 501
B. Elan Dresher
30 Distinctive Features, Levels of Representation,
and Historical Phonology 522
Thomas Purnell and Eric Raimy
31 Historical Sound Change in Optimality Theory:
Achievements and Challenges 545
D. Eric Holt
32 Phonologization 563
Paul Kiparsky
viii   Contents

PA RT V I S O C IOL I N G U I S T IC A N D E XO G E N OU S
FAC TOR S I N H I STOR IC A L P HON OL O G Y
33 Variation, Transmission, Incrementation 583
Alexandra D’Arcy
34 Phonological Change in Real Time 603
David Bowie and Malcah Yaeger-Dror
35 Historical Phonology and Koinéization 619
Daniel Schreier
36 Second Language Acquisition and Phonological Change 637
Fred R. Eckman and Gregory K. Iverson
37 Loanword Adaptation 644
Christian Uffmann

References 667
Indexes 759

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 The Contributors

Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero is Senior Lecturer in Linguistics and English Language at

the University of Manchester. His research focuses on the morphosyntax–phonology
and phonology–phonetics interfaces, with particular attention to diachronic issues. He
works predominantly on Germanic (especially Old, Middle, and Present-Day English)
and Romance. His publications on historical phonology include chapters in Optimality
Theory and Language Change (2003, Kluwer), The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology
(2007, CUP), and The Oxford Handbook of the History of English (2012, OUP).
Juliette Blevins is currently Professor of Linguistics at the CUNY Graduate Center,
with research interests in Austronesian, Australian Aboriginal, Native American,
and Andamanese languages. Her book Evolutionary Phonology (2004, CUP) presents
a unique theory synthesizing results in historical linguistics, phonetics, typology and
phonological theory. She currently has over 100 publications, most recently in such
journals as Phonology, Oceanic Linguistics, and Language and Cognition.
David Bowie is an Associate Professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage, where
he is one of the English Department’s linguists. For the past few years he has been con-
ducting research on the sociolinguistic effects of changes in age and religious affiliation,
so as to provide insights into the linguistic ramifications of involuntary and voluntary
changes in identity. He is also currently laying the groundwork for a planned dialect
atlas of Alaskan English.
Joan Bybee is Distinguished Professor Emerita of Linguistics at the University of New
Mexico. Her work utilizing large cross-linguistic databases, e.g. Morphology: A Study
of the Relation between Meaning and Form (1985, Benjamins), The Evolution of
Grammar: Tense, Aspect and Modality in the Languages of the World (1994, University
of Chicago Press, with Revere Perkins and William Pagliuca), provides diachronic
explanations for typological phenomena. Her books presenting a usage-based perspec-
tive on synchrony and diachrony include Phonology and Language Use (2001, CUP),
Frequency of Use and the Organization of Language (2007, OUP), and Language, Usage
and Cognition (2010, CUP).
András Cser is Associate Professor at Pázmány Péter Catholic University. He has
published on theoretical and historical phonology, specifically on Latin phonology,
as well as on the history of linguistics (Hungarian and European). His works include
The Typology and Modelling of Obstruent Lenition and Fortition Processes (2003,
Akadémiai Kiadó).
x   The Contributors

Alexandra D’Arcy is Associate Professor of Linguistics and Director of the

Sociolinguistics Research Lab at the University of Victoria. She is interested in both dia-
chronic and synchronic aspects of language variation and change, and has published in
such venues as Language, Language Variation and Change, and Language in Society.
Patricia J. Donegan is Associate Professor of Linguistics in the University of Hawai‘i at
Mānoa. With David Stampe, she authored ‘The study of natural phonology’ (1979) and
‘Hypotheses of natural phonology’ (2009). In addition to ‘The phonetic basis of phono-
logical change’ (1993), she has written about vowel systems, phonological acquisition,
and the rhythmic basis of typology.
B. Elan Dresher is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of Toronto. He has
published on phonological theory, historical linguistics, learnability, and West Germanic
and Biblical Hebrew phonology and prosody. He is the author of Old English and the Theory
of Phonology (1985, Garland) and The Contrastive Hierarchy in Phonology (2009, CUP).
Fred R. Eckman is University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Distinguished Professor of
Linguistics. He has published articles on second-language phonology and second-
language syntax in Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, and Studies in Second
Language Acquisition (SSLA), as well as Second Language Research. Most recently he has
co-authored with Gregory Iverson ‘The role of native language phonology in the acqui-
sition of L2 phonemic contrasts’ (2013, SSLA).
David Fertig is on the faculty in the Department of Linguistics at the University at
Buffalo (SUNY). His most recent book is Analogy and Morphological Change (2013,
Edinburgh University Press). He is currently working with several colleagues on a
new English translation with commentary of major chapters from Hermann Paul’s
Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte.
Paul Foulkes is Professor in the Department of Language and Linguistic Science at the
University of York. He has research interests in phonetics, phonology, sociolinguistics,
child language acquisition, and forensic speech science. With Gerry Docherty he is the
co-editor of Urban Voices (1999, Arnold), and author of over 40 journal articles and
book chapters. The latter include state-of-the-science reviews in handbook volumes on
phonetics, language and law, English linguistics, and language emergence.
Anthony Fox was, until his retirement in 2003, Head of the Department of Linguistics
and Phonetics at the University of Leeds. He has published on phonology, German, his-
torical linguistics, and intonation. His books include The Structure of German (1990,
OUP), Linguistic Reconstruction (1995, OUP), and Prosodic Features and Prosodic
Structure (2000, OUP).
Matthew J. Gordon is Associate Professor of English at the University of Missouri. His
research interests include sociolinguistics and the study of sound change in progress. In
addition to publications reporting on this research, he is the author of Labov: A Guide
for the Perplexed (Bloomsbury, 2013), which profiles the career of one of the leading
­figures in linguistics.
 The Contributors   xi

Mark Hale is on the Linguistics faculty at Concordia University. His research covers
topics in phonology, Oceanic, and historical linguistics. He is the author of Historical
Linguistics: Theory and Method (2007, Blackwell) and co-author of The Phonological
Enterprise (with C. Reiss) (2008, OUP).
D. Eric Holt is Associate Professor of Spanish and Linguistics at the University of South
Carolina. His interests lie in phonological theory, especially as a tool for understand-
ing aspects of the sound structure of Spanish, both modern synchronic and histori-
cal diachronic, including dialect variation past and present. In addition to editing and
contributing to the volume Optimality Theory and Language Change (2003, Kluwer), he
also conducts research on the acquisition of connected speech phenomena in Spanish
by English-speaking learners, and serves as one of the associate editors of the journal
Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics.
Patrick Honeybone works in the Department of Linguistics and English Language at
the University of Edinburgh. He has published on historical and theoretical phonology,
has co-edited the volumes Linguistic Knowledge: Perspectives from Phonology and from
Syntax (2006, Lingua) and Issues in English Phonology (2007, Language Sciences), is an
editor of the journal English Language and Linguistics, and is the main organizer of the
annual Manchester Phonology Meeting.
Gregory K. Iverson is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics. Alongside his work in his-
torical Germanic phonology, much of it with Joseph Salmons, he has authored numer-
ous articles relating to Korean and Japanese phonology and to the acquisition of
second-language sound patterns.
Mark J. Jones is a lecturer in Phonetics at City University London. His research interests
are the biological and physiological bases of crosslinguistic patterns in phonetics and
phonology, speech production, and speaker vs listener effects in the evolution of pho-
netic contrasts and phonological structure.
Brett Kessler is an associate professor at Washington University in St Louis, where he
teaches in the Linguistics Program and the Philosophy–Neuroscience–Psychology
Program. He works on developing computational techniques for studying language
phylogenetics and the psychology of phonemic writing systems, with emphasis on sta-
tistical methods for hypothesis testing in linguistics.
Paul Kiparsky is Professor of Linguistics in Stanford University. He has written on phonol-
ogy, morphology, syntax, metrics, and the Sanskrit grammatical tradition. His interest in
the structure of words and the lexicon is reflected in his writings on Lexical Phonology and
Stratal OT, on morphosyntactic licensing, and on the principles governing language change.
Madelyn Kissock is on the Linguistics faculty at Concordia University. Her research
spans issues in the phonology and syntax of Dravidian languages, particularly Telugu,
as well as phonological acquisition. Recent work includes ‘Evidence for finiteness in
Telugu’ (NLLT, 2013) and ‘Markedness and epenthesis: evidence from Telugu and
Polynesia’ (in preparation, with Mark Hale).
xii   The Contributors

Martin Kümmel has taken over the chair of Indo-European Linguistics at the University
of Jena after having worked at the University of Freiburg for many years. He has pub-
lished on historical phonology and IE historical grammar, especially Indo-Iranian.
He was one of the authors of the Lexikon der Indogermanischen Verben (2nd edn 2001,
Reichert), and has written two books on the Indo-Iranian verb and one on conso-
nantal sound change (Konsonantenwandel, 2007, Reichert). Recently, he has become
one of the editors of the International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics and Linguistic
Reconstruction.
Aditi Lahiri, Fellow of the British Academy and honorary life member of the Linguistic
Society of America, is a Professor of Linguistics at the University of Oxford with a
research profile and publications in historical and comparative linguistics of Germanic,
phonology, phonetics, psycholinguistics, and neurolinguistics.
Roger Lass is Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of
Cape Town and Honorary Professorial Fellow in Linguistics and English Language at
the University of Edinburgh. His main interests are historical linguistics, history of the
English language, philosophy of linguistics, and evolutionary biology. Selected publica-
tions include Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion (1994, CUP) and Historical
Linguistics and Language Change (1997, CUP). He was editor of and author of the intro-
duction and the chapter ‘Phonology and morphology’ in the Cambridge History of the
English Language volume 3, 1477–1776 (1999, CUP).
Warren Maguire works in the department of Linguistics and English Language at the
University of Edinburgh. His research is focused on variation and change in the phonology
of regional dialects of English and Scots in Britain and Ireland. He has recently published
articles on Pre-R dentalisation in northern England and on Alexander J. Ellis’s The Existing
Phonology of English Dialects. He is co-editor of Analysing Variation in English (2011, CUP),
and of a special issue of English Language and Linguistics on phonological mergers (2013).
Robert Mailhammer works in the School of Humanities and Communication Arts and
the MARCS Institute at the University of Western Sydney. His research interests focus on
historical linguistics and language documentation, especially on phonology, morphol-
ogy and semantics. He has published on the history of the Germanic languages, especially
on the Germanic strong verbs (The Germanic Strong Verbs, 2007, Mouton de Gruyter)
and the historical phonology of English, as well as on the Australian Indigenous language
Amurdak (Amurdak Inyman, 2009, Iwaidja Inyman, with Robert Handelsmann).
Donka Minkova is a Distinguished Professor of English and Associate Dean of
Humanities, UCLA. She is the author of The History of Final Vowels in English (1991,
Mouton de Gruyter), English Words: History and Structure (2009, CUP), Alliteration and
Sound Change in Early English (2003, CUP), and A Historical Phonology of English (2014,
Edinburgh University Press). She has edited four volumes on the history of English and
has published over 70 research articles in the fields of English and Germanic historical
phonology, syntax, historical dialectology, and English historical metrics.
 The Contributors   xiii

Robert W. Murray is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Calgary and an

External Senior Fellow at the Freiburg Institute of Advanced Studies. He has also served
as Editor and Chair of the Editorial Committee of the Journal of Germanic Linguistics,
published by Cambridge University Press. He publishes mainly in the areas of histori-
cal phonology and the historiography of linguistics, e.g. ‘Syllable cut prosody in early
Middle English’ (2000, Language) and ‘Language and space: the Neogrammarian tradi-
tion’ (2010, in Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation,
ed. Peter Auer and Jürgen Erich Schmidt, Mouton de Gruyter).
Geoffrey S. Nathan is Professor of Linguistics at Wayne State University, located in the
English Department. He received a Ph.D. in Linguistics with a specialization in syntax
from the University of Hawai‘i but has spent most of his career as a phonologist, first at
Southern Illinois University Carbondale and then at Wayne State. His primary interests
are in Cognitive Phonology, but he has also published on phonetics, the history of linguis-
tics, and recently exploring the relationship between the cognition of language and music.
He has written a textbook on phonology within the Cognitive Grammar framework.
Betty S. Phillips works in the Department of Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics at
Indiana State University. She has published articles on English historical phonology and
is the author of Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion (2006, Palgrave Macmillan).
Thomas Purnell is Associate Professor in the English Department at the University of
Wisconsin–Madison. His research and teaching examines the interface between phonet-
ics and phonology with a focus on regional pronunciation. In particular, he is interested
in the intersection of ethnically affiliated social groups and sound systems of language.
Eric Raimy is a professor in the Department of English at the University of
Wisconsin–Madison. He is the co-editor with Charles Cairns of The Handbook of the
Syllable (2011, Brill). He is the author of The Morphology and Phonology of Reduplication
(2000, Mouton de Gruyter). He is a member of the Wisconsin Englishes Project with
Thomas Purnell and Joseph Salmons.
Martha Ratliff is Professor of Linguistics at Wayne State University. She writes about
Hmong-Mien linguistics, language contact in Southeast Asia, historical linguistics,
and tone. Recent publications include Hmong-Mien Language History (2010, Pacific
Linguistics) and Meaningful Tone (reissued 2010, Northern Illinois University Press).
She is the co-founder of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society.
Charles Reiss teaches in the Linguistics Program at Concordia University in Montreal.
He is coauthor of The Phonological Enterprise (OUP, 2008, with Mark Hale) and
I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science (OUP, 2008/2013, with
Daniela Isac). He is currently working on basic logic in phonology.
David Restle works at the University of Munich. He has published on historical phonol-
ogy, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, for example Silbenschnitt–Quantität–Kopplung:
zur Geschichte, Charakterisierung und Repräsentation der Anschlußprosodie (2003, Fink).
xiv   The Contributors

Joseph Salmons is the Lester W. J. ‘Smoky’ Seifert Professor of Germanic Linguistics

at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In addition to articles on phonology and lan-
guage change, he is most recently the author of A History of German (2012, OUP), and
serves as executive editor of Diachronica: International Journal of Historical Linguistics.
Tobias Scheer is a CNRS researcher working at the laboratory ‘Bases, Corpus, Langage’
at Nice University. He has worked on the diachronic phonology of German, Slavic, and
Romance, and recently published two books on the interface of phonology and mor-
phosyntax (A Guide to Morphosyntax–Phonology Interface Theories, 2011, de Gruyter,
and Direct Interface and One-Channel Translation, 2012, de Gruyter).
Daniel Schreier is Professor of English at the University of Zurich. He has published
on varieties of English, contact linguistics, and English historical phonology. His
recent publications include English as Contact Language (2013, CUP, co-edited with
Marianne Hundt) and The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction (2010,
CUP, co-edited with Peter Trudgill, Edgar Schneider, and Jeffrey P. Williams). He is also
co-editor of English World-Wide: A Journal of Varieties of English.
Laura Catharine Smith is an Associate Professor of Germanic Linguistics in the
Department of German and Russian at Brigham Young University. Her research on his-
torical phonology focuses on the role of prosodic templates shaping the Germanic lan-
guages. She is also interested in the role of dialect in both language change and second
language acquisition, perception, and production.
Christian Uffmann’s main research interest is in phonological theory, with a special
interest in how it interfaces with sociolinguistic issues, especially language contact. He
has published a number of articles on loanword adaptation and creole phonology, and
also Vowel Epenthesis in Loanword Adaptation (2007, Niemeyer). Within phonological
theory, he is particularly interested in phonological representations and their role in a
constraint-based model of phonology. He is currently writing a monograph on distinc-
tive feature theory for CUP.
J. Marshall Unger is Professor of Japanese at the Ohio State University. He chaired the
Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures 1996–2004, having previously
chaired similar departments at the University of Hawai‘i and the University of Maryland
(1988–96). He has published on the history of Japanese, the teaching of Japanese as a
second language, and writing systems, script reforms, and impacts of computerization
in Japan, China, and Korea.
Adam Ussishkin works in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Arizona,
and also has affiliations there with the program in Cognitive Sciences, as well as with the
Department of Middle Eastern and North African Studies. He has published articles
and book chapters on phonology, morphology, and psycholinguistics, concentrating
on Semitic. He serves as a member of the editorial boards for Journal of Linguistics and
Ilsienna (the journal of the International Association of Maltese Linguistics).
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