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Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 E n v i ro n m e n ta l S a f e t y o f
G e n e t i c a l l y E n g i n ee r e d C r o p s
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 E n v i ro n m e n ta l
Safety of
G e n e t i c a l ly
E n g i n ee r e d
Crops

Edited by Rebecca Grumet, James F. Hancock,

Karim M. Maredia, and Cholani Weebadde
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Michigan State University Press

East Lansing

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Copyright © 2011 by Michigan State University

i The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-­1992 (R 1997)
(Permanence of Paper).

Michigan State University Press

East Lansing, Michigan 48823-­5245

Printed and bound in the United States of America.

17 16 15 14 13 12 11   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

library of congress cataloging-­in-­publication data

Environmental safety of genetically engineered crops / edited by Rebecca Grumet . . . [et al].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-­1-­61186-­008-­5 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Crops—­Genetic engineering—­Environmental aspects. 2. Crops—­Genetic engineering—­Safety measures.
3. Crops—­Genetic engineering—­Government policy. I. Grumet, Rebecca.

SB123.57.E68 2010
631.5'233—­dc22 2010052158

Cover design by Erin Kirk New

Book design by Scribe Inc (www.scribenet.com)

G Michigan State University Press is a member of the Green Press Initiative and is committed to developing
and encouraging ecologically responsible publishing practices. For more information about the Green
Press Initiative and the use of recycled paper in book publishing, please visit www.greenpressinitiative.org.
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

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www.msupress.msu.edu

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 This book is dedicated to the Father of Green Revolution, Dr. Norman
E. Borlaug (1914–­2 009), a visionary scientist and inspirational leader
who dedicated his life to the development and use of new science and tech-
nology for the benefit of farmers and consumers around the world.
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Contents

Foreword by M. S. Swaminathan ix
Preface xi

Part 1. Introduction to Environmental Biosafety in

Relation to Genetically Engineered Crops

Production of Genetically Engineered Crops, Relationship to Conventional

Plant Breeding, and Implications for Safety Assessment
Rebecca Grumet 3

Environmental Issues Associated with Agricultural Production Systems

Kurt D. Thelen 15

Environmental Biosafety Issues Associated with

Genetically Engineered Crops
Cholani Weebadde and Karim M. Maredia 21

Current Status of Genetically Engineered Crops and Assessment

of Environmental Impacts
Hector Quemada 31

Future Possible Genetically Engineered Crops and Traits and Their

Potential Environmental Impacts
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Rebecca Grumet, LaReesa Wolfenbarger, and Alejandra Ferenczi 47

Part 2. Environmental Considerations Associated

with Genetically Engineered Crops

Factors Influencing the Genetic Diversity of Plant Species and the

Potential Impact of Transgene Movement
James F. Hancock 61

Control and Monitoring of Gene Flow from Genetically Engineered Crops

James F. Hancock and Mark Halsey 75

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 viii
| Contents

Evaluation of Potential Impacts of Genetically Engineered Plant-­Incorporated

Protectants on Non-Target Organisms
Robyn Rose 87

Pests Resistant to Pesticides and Genetically Modified Crop Plants:

Theory and Management
Christina DiFonzo, Edward Grafius, David E. Hillger,
Chad D. Lee, and James J. Kells 105

A Problem-­Based Approach to Environmental Risk Assessment of

Genetically Engineered Crops
James F. Hancock and Hector Quemada 123

Part 3. Regulation of Genetically Engineered Crops

with Respect to Environmental Safety

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and Other International Regulations

Fee Chon Low and Robert J. Frederick 131

Systems to Regulate Genetically Engineered Plants: Similarities and

Differences among Countries
Karen Hokanson and Alejandra Ferenczi 147

Bio-­Innovations and the Economics of Biosafety Regulatory

Decision Making and Design in Developing Countries
José Falck-­Zepeda and Patricia Zambrano 157

Part 4. Future Challenges and Opportunities

Risk-­Benefit Communication for Transgenic Crops

Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Muffy Koch and Adrianne Massey 175

Capacity Building in Biosafety

Karim M. Maredia, Cholani Weebadde, John Komen,
and Kakoli Ghosh 189

The Evolving International Regulatory Regime: Impact on

Agricultural Development
John Komen and Silvia Salazar 209

Contributors 225
Index 231

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Foreword
M. S. Swaminathan

Genetically engineered crops provide uncommon opportunities to breed

varieties that possess novel genetic combinations capable of conferring tolerance to a wide
range of biotic and abiotic stresses. With the onset of the era of climate change, we will need
genetic material capable of withstanding unfavorable alterations in temperature, precipitation,
and sea level. Biodiversity is the feedstock for a climate-­resilient farming system. Biodiversity
is also the feedstock for the biotechnology industry. While the benefits of genetic engineering
are clear, the potential risks have created public concern about the wisdom of releasing and
consuming genetically modified crops. Therefore, there is need for a system of benefit-­risk
analysis that inspires confidence among professions, politicians, the public, and the media.
Among the risks to be assessed, environmental biosafety occupies an important place.
Damage to the environment will have multiple effects on the health and well-­being of both
human and animal inhabitants of an area. The present book is therefore a timely contribu-
tion. It deals with environmental biosafety in a comprehensive manner, ranging from the
impact of genetic engineering on agricultural production systems to problems arising from
gene flow from genetically engineered crops. The impact of herbicide-­resistant varieties on
soil microflora and microfauna will have to be studied over time. Longitudinal studies are also
needed to reliably assess environmental risks. The book contains chapters on scientific aspects
of biosafety as well as the economics of biosafety regulatory decision-­making, and capacity
building in biosafety procedures and evaluation. The evolving international regulatory regime
is also described in detail.
Genetic engineering techniques can help humankind to face the new challenges arising
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

from population growth, biodiversity loss, and climate change. Therefore, every country
should equip itself with the capacity to assess and manage environmental risks. This book will
be of invaluable help in this task. We owe the authors deep gratitude for their comprehensive
and authoritative treatment of a difficult and often emotionally charged subject. All biotech-
nology regulatory authorities should derive benefit from this publication.

ix

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Preface

Humans have an enormous capacity to alter the environment around them,

a fact that has become increasingly evident in recent years. With that capacity comes respon-
sibility, and often conflicting imperatives. How do we achieve the right balance between food
security, human health, nutrition, sanitation, quality of life, and environmental sustainability?
To what extent can new technologies help us achieve that balance, or drive us to further, and
perhaps irreparable, long-­term environmental degradation?
Agriculture is one of the human activities that causes the greatest environmental impact,
first and foremost through the diversion of land from natural ecosystems to food production,
whether through subsistence small-­scale farming in the developing world, or large-­scale com-
mercial production in industrialized countries. But it is agriculture that provides fundamental
needs for food, fiber, and shelter, and that frees humans to achieve in other endeavors. Fur-
thermore, without high-­yielding agriculture, despite its attendant effects on water use, soil
salinization, pesticide use, and soil erosion, it would be necessary to bring additional, often
agriculturally marginal, land into cultivation, thus causing even more destruction of native
ecosystems.
Where do biotechnology and the development of genetically engineered (GE) crops fit
into this tug of priorities? Proponents argue that by producing higher yields and reduced
losses to pests, such crops decrease the environmental burden of agricultural production, espe-
cially if less new land is brought into cultivation, pesticide use is reduced, and more favorable
farming practices can be employed to reduce soil erosion. Opponents argue that GE crops
may cause unforeseen long-­term environmental consequences and perpetuate the disruption
caused by conventional farming practices.
How do we balance these opposing views? In these deliberations are complex roles for
science, technology, economics, and ethics that ultimately drive governmental policy and
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

individual farmers’ choices. While science cannot stand alone in determining appropriate
policies and decisions about use of new technologies, discussions of policy must be rooted in
accurate information. This is especially important with respect to questions of biosafety. As
a starting point in assessing validity, we can ask, Is there scientific consensus at the highest
levels of available expertise? How far does the consensus extend? Where is there divergence of
opinion, and what are the gaps in our knowledge?
More than one hundred U.S., European, and international scientific societies from around
the world have addressed the relative safety of genetically engineered and conventionally bred
crops. All have reached the conclusion that properly regulated genetic engineering of crop
plants does not pose new risks to human health or the environment relative to conventional
plant breeding. GE crops are not inherently dangerous. This conclusion is cogently sum-
marized by the 2005 report of the International Council for Science (ICSU—­http.iscu.org),
headquartered in Paris, and representing 111 national academies of science and 29 scientific

xi

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 xii
| Preface

unions. The ICSU’s report was based on 50 independent scientific enquiries carried out by
different groups in different parts of the world to investigate the food and environmental
safety of GE crops. With respect to food safety, the conclusion was that “currently available
genetically modified foods are safe to eat. This view is shared by several intergovernmental
agencies, including the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission on Food Safety, which
has 162 member countries.” However, the report also states that “although currently available
GM foods are considered safe to eat, this does not guarantee that no risks will be encoun-
tered as more foods are developed with novel characteristics. Ongoing evaluation of emerging
agricultural products is required to ensure that new foods coming to market are safe for con-
sumers. Food safety evaluation must be undertaken on a case-­by-case basis.”
With respect to environmental safety, the appropriateness of specific technologies depends
on the current agricultural system and practices, and the surrounding natural environment.
The ICSU report concluded: “The effect of genetic technologies may be either positive or
negative. They may either accelerate the environmentally damaging effects of agriculture, or
they may contribute to more sustainable agricultural practices and the conservation of natural
resources. It is a matter of application and choice.” Thus, it is not GE technologies per se,
but, like virtually any technology, the manner in which they are employed that can be safe
or unsafe. Scientific assessments must be coupled with the governmental and institutional
frameworks and capacity to interpret and make nationally and locally appropriate choices of
technologies.
It is from this perspective—­that the safety of genetically engineered crops is a matter of
application and choice—­that this book is written. We describe the basis for the develop-
ment and use of genetically engineered crops and examine the possible impacts that such
technologies may have on the environment. To make these determinations, specific genes
and traits must be evaluated within the context of the environment into which they will be
introduced, the manner in which they will be used, and the current agricultural system and
attendant environmental impacts of the technology. Our intent is to provide the reader with a
framework by which to address these issues within the context of the varying geographies and
circumstances in which the adoption of GE crop technology is being considered.
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Part 1

Introduction to Environmental
Biosafety in Relation to Genetically
Engineered Crops
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Production of Genetically
Engineered Crops, Relationship to
Conventional Plant Breeding, and
Implications for Safety Assessment
Rebecca Grumet

Genetically engineered (GE) crops are developed using a combination of

genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technologies) and conventional plant breeding meth-
ods. The novelty of techniques employed in introducing new genes and traits into these crops
through genetic engineering has prompted extensive debate, and has led to the establishment of
regulations at national and international levels to ensure safe deployment. As a starting point for
discussions of environmental safety in subsequent chapters, this chapter will provide an intro-
duction to GE crops and their relationship to crops produced by conventional techniques.
Genetic engineering, by definition, involves genes. All living organisms (plants, animals,
microbes) have genes. Genes, which are located on chromosomes, encode the hereditary
information that is passed from one generation to the next, and in encoded form, provide all
the instructions that are needed to produce a functional organism. The genes in a plant pro-
vide the information that enables plant cells to produce the machinery needed to take carbon
dioxide from the air, absorb water and nutrients from the soil, and convert them into leaves,
roots, flowers, and seeds. They also provide mechanisms that enable plants to respond to their
environment in various ways, such as perceiving and growing toward light, preparing for cold
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

weather, and producing defensive compounds against pathogens and insects.

The information provided by genes is in the form of instructions for producing proteins,
not the least of which are all of the enzymes necessary to perform all of the biochemical reac-
tions in a cell. Plant cells are essentially biochemical factories that perform photosynthesis (the
ultimate source of all energy in the food chain) and produce the fantastic array of compounds
(sugars, starches, cellulose, proteins, oils, vitamins, flavors, fragrances, pigments, medicinal
compounds) that allow plants to be sources of foods, fibers, building materials, fuels, medi-
cines, and aesthetic beauty. A trait can result from the protein itself, but more often is the
result of the products of enzymatic reactions.
The coding capacity of genes is derived from their molecular structure. Genes are made
of DNA, a helical molecule composed of strings of four types of nucleotides, A (adenine),
T (thymine), G (guanine), and C (cytosine). The order of the nucleotides specifies the
sequence of amino acids that is specific to each kind of protein. Given the range of activities,

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 4
| Rebecca Grumet

it is not surprising that the genome (total collection of genes) of a typical plant comprises
20,000–­40,000 genes (Chrispeels and Sadava 2003). It has been analogized that if all of the
information contained in the genes of a rice plant (estimated 37,500 genes) were to be written
out as ATGCs, it would fill 40 books, each with 1,000 pages (Lemaux 2006). Any typical gene
would take up less than one page.
Importantly, the language of DNA (the ability to encode the amino acid sequence of
proteins) is the same regardless of the type of organism it came from. This is a critical fac-
tor underlying genetic engineering techniques, which makes it possible to move genes from
one organism to another. Genetic engineering depends on two types of technologies primar-
ily developed in the 1970s and 1980s, recombinant DNA technology and transformation
technologies. Recombinant DNA technology refers to a collection of techniques used to take
genes from different places and put them together in new combinations (i.e., recombinant).
Transformation refers to moving the recombined gene into a new organism. The resultant
organism is referred to as transformed, genetically modified, genetically engineered, or transgenic.

Production of a Genetically Engineered Crop

The process of producing a GE crop can be broadly divided into five general steps: obtain
and engineer the desired gene (recombinant DNA technology); introduce the gene into indi-
vidual cells/chromosomes (transformation); regenerate the transformed cell into a whole plant
(tissue culture technology); verify the presence and expression of the introduced gene and
desired new trait (lab, greenhouse, and field studies); and incorporate the new trait into a
high-­performing variety (conventional breeding) (figure 1). Each of these steps will be dis-
cussed briefly to give a general overview of the process. More complete descriptions of the
relevant technologies can be found in several texts and reviews, such as Chrispeels and Sadava
(2003); Sharma et al. (2005); Thomson (2006); Watson et al. (1992).

Step 1: Obtain the Gene of Interest and Engineer into

a Form for Expression in the New Plant
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

The length of time and sophistication of technologies needed to obtain the gene of inter-
est varies widely, depending on the state of background knowledge. If the gene of interest is
closely related to one that has already been cloned from another organism, or if the protein the
gene codes for has already been isolated and characterized, obtaining the gene can be relatively
easy, and relies primarily on standard recombinant DNA techniques. These include cloning
(making copies of the gene of interest so it can be worked with in the laboratory), and cutting
and pasting to precisely assemble the intended pieces of DNA (Watson et al. 1992). If the
gene has never been cloned before, and little or nothing is known about the protein it encodes,
initial cloning can be more difficult, and may require more sophisticated genomic technolo-
gies developed in the last two decades that can examine thousands of genes at the same time.
Desirable genes about which little is known might include a gene coding for resistance to a
specific disease, or one coding for enzymes to produce an herbal medicinal compound.
Once the gene of interest is in hand, modifications may be needed to engineer the gene

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Production, Breeding, and Safety
| 5

Figure 1. Steps to Produce a GE Crop: (1) obtain and engineer the desired gene (recombinant DNA technology); (2) introduce
the gene into individual cells/chromosomes (transformation); (3) regenerate the transformed cell into a whole plant (tissue
culture technology); (4) verify the presence and expression of the introduced gene and desired new trait (lab, greenhouse
and field studies); (5) and incorporate the new trait into a high performing variety (conventional breeding).
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

into a form for expression in the new plant. Generally the most important modification is
adding an appropriate promoter, a piece of that tells the cell when, where, and how
much of the gene should be expressed. or example, certain genes may need to be expressed
DNA
everywhere, others only in the seeds, others only in response to drought.
F
Step 2: ransfer the Engineered Gene into Cells of the Desired Plant
T
ntroducing the gene into cells (and ultimately chromosomes) of the desired plant requires
transformation technology. he two most widely used methods are Agrobacterium-mediated
I
transformation and particle bombardment ( hrispeels and Sadava 2003; Sharma et al. 2005).
T
­
C
Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 6
| Rebecca Grumet

Agrobacterium-­mediated transformation uses a naturally occurring soil bacterium that, as part

of its normal infection process, transfers a few of its own genes into a chromosome of the host
plant cell—­it is a natural genetic engineer. Through recombinant DNA techniques, it is possible
to remove the genes that the bacterium would normally transfer and substitute genes of interest
for crop improvement. Agrobacterium-­mediated transformation is the preferred method because
of its relative efficiency and specificity. However, it does not work well for all species.
The second method, particle bombardment, uses tiny particles of tungsten or gold that
are coated with the desired DNA. The particles are then accelerated to speeds that allow
them to penetrate the cells. In some cases, some of the DNA becomes incorporated into the
chromosome, allowing it to be passed on through cell divisions and inherited by subsequent
generations. Although less efficient, a primary advantage of this method is it can be used for
any species.

Step 3: Regenerate Cells with the New Gene into the Whole Plant

In the first stage of transformation, the gene of interest becomes incorporated into a single cell.
It is then necessary to culture the cell to become a whole plant. This process, called regeneration,
is accomplished by placing the treated plant tissue onto a culture medium that allows the cells to
divide and differentiate to form plant parts. The necessary media conditions must be developed
for each species of interest. The regenerated plant is ultimately transferred to soil and used to
produce progeny. Tissue culture techniques are also used for a variety of other purposes, such as
propagating species that are not typically grown from seeds (i.e., clonally propagated species), or
to produce disease-­free sources of planting materials (Lindsey and Jones 1990).
In any transformation process, only a tiny fraction of a percent of the treated cells acquire
the gene of interest. One of the challenges is to be able to separate the few transformed cells
from the thousands of nontransformed cells. This is most often accomplished by introduc-
ing two genes, the desired gene (e.g., for insect resistance), and a second gene that serves as a
marker to find the transformed cells (selectable marker gene) (Sharma et al. 2005). The select-
able marker allows the transformed cells to grow in conditions that inhibit nontransformed
cells, such as in the presence of antibiotic or herbicide resistance. In this way, only the cells
that have become transformed are able to grow and divide and ultimately regenerate.
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

Step 4: Verify Incorporation and Expression of the

Gene and Performance of the New Trait

The first step after regenerating a putatively transgenic plant is to verify presence and expres-
sion of the gene. Presence of the gene is determined using DNA detection techniques such as
PCR or Southern analysis. Stable inheritance is verified by transfer to subsequent generations.
Expression of the gene can be verified by testing for transcription to RNA or production of
the desired protein. Once it is determined that the gene is present, stably inherited, and prop-
erly expressed, the plants can be tested for expression of the desired trait, (e.g., virus resistance,
salt stress resistance) in greenhouse and confined field trials. At this stage, if the desired trait
has been obtained, proof of concept has been established, demonstrating that the introduced
gene can be potentially useful.

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Production, Breeding, and Safety
| 7

Step 5: Incorporate the Gene into High-­Performing

Cultivars by Conventional Breeding

For many, if not most crops, the plant varieties that perform well in tissue culture for trans-
formation and regeneration are not the best varieties for performance and productivity in the
field. Furthermore, even if a high-­performing cultivar can be successfully transformed, no one
variety can be used everywhere. Varieties must be bred for the specific conditions in which
they will be grown with respect to temperatures, availability of water, length of growing sea-
son, day length, prevalent diseases, and so forth. As an example, seed company catalogs offer
hundreds of “Roundup Ready” (glyphosate resistant) soybean varieties for sale in the United
States. For genes/traits being introduced into new locations, the gene will need to be trans-
ferred into locally adapted varieties. Varieties also vary depending on the use of the crop, for
example, fresh market versus processing, food versus feed, specific processing characteristics
(e.g., oil or starch qualities), again necessitating incorporation of the gene of interest into the
types appropriate for the intended use.
Controlled crosses (pollinations) are made between plants of the genetically engineered
variety and the desired recipient variety, and backcrossed as needed to obtain the appropri-
ate combination of traits. The resultant progeny are tested in small-­plot field trials to verify
performance. The most promising lines are moved to more extensive multiyear, multilocation
trials to be sure the crop and the new trait perform well over a range of conditions that may
be encountered by the new variety.

Comparison of Genetic Engineering and

Conventional Plant Breeding Methods

When considering the biosafety of genetically engineered crops, it is important to be famil-

iar with methods used for the alternative option, conventionally bred crops. Plant breeding
began with the domestication of crops for agriculture. People have been genetically modifying
plants as long as they have cultivated crops. For example, excavation of archaeological sites in
Peru found beans associated with the remains of city dwellings dated 7,000–­10,000 years ago
exhibiting features of domestication including markedly increased size relative to wild beans
Copyright © 2011. Michigan State University Press. All rights reserved.

in the area, thin seed coats, and loss of the inner fibrous pod layer which in the wild expels
beans from the pod (Kaplan et al. 1973). These modifications demonstrate that prehistoric
plant breeders were able to make impressive gains in productivity and agricultural and culi-
nary quality.

Selection

The primary tool available to the earliest plant breeders was selection, that is, choosing the
best types for further propagation. Selection can occur both intentionally and inadvertently.
Examples of intentional selection include selection for increased size, better flavor, or ease of
cooking. Inadvertent selection plays a predominant role in local adaptation. Humans move
crops from one location to another. In this process, the environmental conditions change, and

Environmental Safety of Genetically Engineered Crops, Michigan State University Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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