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Landscapes of Human Evolution

Contributions
in honour of
John Gowlett

edited by
James Cole
John McNabb
Matt Grove
Rob Hosfield
Landscapes of Human Evolution

Contributions in honour of John Gowlett

edited by
James Cole, John McNabb, Matt Grove
and Rob Hosfield

Archaeopress Archaeology
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Summertown Pavilion
18-24 Middle Way
Summertown
Oxford OX2 7LG

www.archaeopress.com

ISBN 978-1-78969-379-9
ISBN 978-1-78969-380-5 (e-Pdf)

© the individual authors and Archaeopress 2020

Cover: Handaxe from Amanzi Springs, © Caruana and Herries, this volume;
photograph © James Cole - John Gowlett at Chesowanje (Kenya) 2014;
background photograph © James Cole – Kilombe (Kenya) 2014.
Back Cover: photograph © Clive Gamble – John Gowlett at Klithi (Greece) 1983.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.

This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com
 Contents

Foreword����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������iii
James Cole, John McNabb, Matt Grove and Rob Hosfield

A Good Man in Africa: John Gowlett’s Writings on Africa and its Hominin Archaeology from the Late 1970s
to the Early 2000s���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
John McNabb

Brain Size Evolution in the Hominin Clade������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 9

Andrew Du and Bernard Wood

Australopithecus or Homo? The Postcranial Evidence ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18

Robin H. Crompton

Evolutionary Diversity and Adaptation in Early Homo������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29

Alan Bilsborough and Bernard Wood

Rift Dynamics and Archaeological Sites: Acheulean Land Use in Geologically Unstable Settings���������������� 42
Simon Kübler, Geoff Bailey, Stephen Rucina, Maud Devès and Geoffrey C.P. King

How Many Handaxes Make an Acheulean? A Case Study from the SHK-Annexe Site, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania����� 64
Ignacio de la Torre and Rafael Mora

An Acheulian Balancing Act: A Multivariate Examination of Size and Shape in Handaxes from Amanzi
Springs, Eastern Cape, South Africa��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92
Matthew V. Caruana and Andy I. R. Herries

Reflections on Possible Zoomorphic Acheulean Bifaces from Southwestern Algeria��������������������������������� 117

Thomas Wynn, Mohamed Sahnouni, Tony Berlant and Claude Douce

Variable Cognition in the Evolution of Homo: Biology and Behaviour in the African Middle Stone Age���� 125
Robert A. Foley and Marta Mirazón Lahr

Initial Source Evaluation of Archaeological Obsidian from Middle Stone Age Site Kilombe Gq J h3 West 200,
Kenya, East Africa����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142
Sally Hoare, Stephen Rucina and John A.J. Gowlett

The Eternal Triangle of Human Evolution���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150

Clive Gamble

Climate, Fire and the Biogeography of Palaeohominins������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 157

Robin I.M. Dunbar

Fire, the Hearth (ocak) and Social Life: Examples from an Alevi Community in Anatolia��������������������������� 170
David Shankland

From Specialty to Specialist: A Citation Analysis of Evolutionary Anthropology, Palaeolithic Archaeology

and the Work of John Gowlett 1970-2018����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Anthony Sinclair

i
ii
 Foreword

James Cole, John McNabb, Matt Grove and Rob Hosfield

In 1984’s Ascent to Civilisation John Gowlett observed: ‘As the present is but an instant, we [must] depend upon
past experience for strategies [to] cope with the future’ (Gowlett 1984: 196). John’s reflection on the value of our
collective past is especially relevant in regards to the challenges that humans as a global society face today. The
impacts of rapid, and in some senses unpredictable, climate change are global issues that impact us all. In this
regard, the study of human evolution remains an exciting, and important, field of study to help humanity navigate
the challenges of the future.

As the seemingly deeply interconnected origins of our species are being realised at a geographic, genetic and cultural
level, understanding these relationships with regard to other human ancestral species (e.g. the Neanderthals), and
appreciating how they navigated periods of climatic and social instability in the past, must underpin our strategies
for the global future and our notions of ‘self’ and ‘other’. Furthermore, gaining insights into the origins of the
complex social and cultural behaviours that underline our entire way of life in the present (e.g. language, symbolism,
landscape manipulation, social networks, and the creation of distinct cultural identities) are fundamental to
charting a more sustainable and inclusive future for ourselves and our planet. This Landscapes of Human Evolution
volume is therefore highly timely in its drawing together of some of the world’s leading scholars in human evolution
and related disciplines in order to present cutting-edge research papers, and is in honour of Prof. John Gowlett,
who has played a pivotal, although often typically understated, role in developing the fields of human origins
research, spanning lithic material culture, Plio-Pleistocene landscapes and environments, pyrotechnologies, and
the archaeology of the social brain, through projects across Europe and Africa. The landscapes of human evolution
covered in this volume are therefore broad; incorporating physical topography, socio-cultural and cognitive
structures that stretch back into the past and before us into the future.

Landscapes of Human Evolution has therefore invited contributions that fit within four main themes that John has
pioneered throughout his career. (1) The biological development of early hominins, especially members of the genus
Homo, and their characteristic features of large brains, bipedal locomotion and behavioural adaptation. Within this
theme the volume addresses how encephalisation is related to increasing behavioural and cultural sophistication,
and how this trajectory can be mapped throughout the course of human evolution (Du and Wood; Bilsborough
and Wood; Crompton). (2) The strategies employed for dealing with, and ultimately manipulating, heterogeneous
landscapes and environments, with a particular focus on how the changing environments of the Plio-Pleistocene
have influenced hominin adaptation, and how this might have impinged on early hominins’ biological development
(Kübler et al; Hoare et al; Gamble). (3) The origins of controlled use of fire as a mechanism for survival and an incubator
of increasing social complexity within hominin groups, clarifying how the use and control of fire accords with other
cultural developments, and how it changed the dynamics of hominin society (Dunbar; Shankland). (4) The role of lithic
technologies in developing hominin behavioural complexity, and the ways in which the contemporary classification
of these technologies frames the understanding of the past in the present. This final theme seeks to address how data
on lithic technology – the most durable record of ancestral human behaviour – can be mined to elucidate changes in
hominin cognition, behaviour, and their interactions with ancestral environments (McNabb; de la Torre and Mora;
Caruana and Herries; Wynn; Foley and Lahr). Finally, Sinclair presents a citation network analysis from two major areas
of human evolution research (Palaeolithic Archaeology; Evolutionary Anthropology) that serves to explicitly demonstrate
the tremendous impact that John has had on the discipline of human origins research.

As well as having a profound impact in framing the way current researchers seek to engage with and interpret the
complex behaviours of our human ancestors with his research, John has always been a champion of early career
researchers and has left a valuable legacy of friendship and training networks in the many corners of the world
in which he has worked. John is always ready to give his time and knowledge to any who ask for it and it is this
generosity of spirit that has been recognised time and again by all who come into contact with him, and which has
inspired this collection of papers. In return we, the editors, hope that this volume goes some way in demonstrating
the high professional and personal standing in which Prof. John Gowlett is held.

Thank you John.

iii
iv
 A Good Man in Africa: John Gowlett’s Writings on Africa and its
Hominin Archaeology from the Late 1970s to the Early 2000s

John McNabb

Introduction became a significant element in the debates on early

fire that Gowlett was heavily involved with in the 1980s.
This overview of selected aspects of John Gowlett’s Kariandusi was considered a disturbed factory site and
work from the first two decades of his research career did not really contribute much to discourse during this
is not intended to be definitive or comprehensive. It first decade of Gowlett’s research .
is a personal perspective on Gowlett’s thinking and
writing focusing on just a few of the many aspects of Across this decade Gowlett’s writings broadly fall
archaeology that he is interested in. Topics like fire and into two camps. Firstly, those that represent a basic
chronology I will barely touch on, nor will I discuss the reportage of sites, descriptions of assemblage character
papers arising from his Beeches Pit excavations in the and composition, and interim site reports. Secondly,
1990s. those which tackle broader theoretical concerns. Right
from the outset it is clear how data from his excavations
I have elected to review aspects of Gowlett’s thinking fed directly into his theory building. The influence of
prior to the formal beginning of the British Academy’s other thinkers is evident too; Glyn Isaac, in particular
Centenary Research Project, ‘Lucy to Language: the his work on the reasons for variation in assemblage
Archaeology of the Social Brain’, in 2003. He was one of the composition (Isaac 1977), and artefact character (Isaac
principle investigators, and along with Clive Gamble, 1972); Mary Leakey at Oldupai Gorge (Leakey 1971), but
he was invited to participate by Robin Dunbar. My also of Julian Huxley (Huxley 1955) and Ralph Holloway
choice of selected themes and time frame is a result of (Holloway 1969), two names that repeatedly crop up in
the strong synergy between the aspects of cognitive the more theoretical papers and whose theory building
evolution that the Social Brain project was focused has persistently informed Gowlett’s own ideas across
upon, and the fact that Gowlett was writing about these two decades . It is worth pointing out that younger
these themes in the quarter of a century prior to the researchers today may assume that theory building is
formal beginnings of the project. In a sense the Social synonymous with ‘theoretical archaeology’. However
Brain project brought together what were an already in the Palaeolithic archaeology of the 1970s and early
coalescing group of related research interests under a 1980s it was usually focused on practical epistemology;
single umbrella, uniting them via the idea of sociality what should we call so-and-so, why and how do we
as the driver for evolutionary change. This latter had know so-and-so is real; what does the reality of so-and-
been implicit in Gowlett’s own theory building long so mean for everything else?
before the Millennium, but it was only in the middle-
late 1990s that sociality became an explicit element in From the decade 1978 - 1988, these are the major themes
the development of his ideas. that to my mind thread their way through Gowlett’s
work. I have parsed them out here, but they are clearly
I should point out that my interpretations of John interlinked.
Gowlett’s work are not necessarily ones he would agree
with; nor does he necessarily hold the same views today • The human way of thinking has deep roots and
as he once did. this can be seen in stone tools and through the
analysis of their manufacture.
Theory and mind in the African years • The nature of the relationship between
culture, the mind and material culture. This
1978 to the late 1980s saw Gowlett’s entry into the engaged Huxley’s concept of the psychosocial
research culture of the East African Pleistocene with (Huxley 1955), which in today’s terminology
excavations at Kilombe (Gowlett 1978), Kariandusi might equate with cognitive evolution and its
(Gowlett and Crompton 1994) and Chesowanja relationship with sociality.
(Gowlett, et al. 1981; Harris, et al. 1981), all in Kenya. • Arising from the previous point, Gowlett argued
The first two were Acheulean sites and represented passionately that stone tools provided key
major contributions to his Ph.D (Gowlett 1979b), insights into the ‘psychosocial sector’, stemming
whereas the last was primarily an Oldowan site, with from both the tools themselves but also their
a later intrusive Acheulean component. Chesowanja patterned distribution in time and space.

1
Landscapes of Human Evolution

• Developing from the last, epistemological directly to the negative views of a number of colleagues
concerns about the recognition, description and who were downgrading the importance of stone tools
quantification of temporal and spatial variability (a reaction to excessive typological studies), in addition
seen in stone tools. This was exemplified by the to denying any real evolutionary significance to pre-
Acheulean vs Developed Oldowan debate. modern humans (Gowlett 1984; Gowlett 1986). The
view advocated was that important changes in human
From the late 1980s to the beginning of the Social evolution all happened with modern humans in the
Brain project in 2003, these basic themes continued last one hundred thousand years. Gowlett championed
to underwrite much of Gowlett’s research output, the importance of Early Pleistocene stone tool analysis
although in some cases the themes changed as the by demonstrating that the fundamental basis of
research questions of the decade changed. Whether how humans think – the foundations of our thought
topics were in or out of the frame, the primary data processes - had a long evolutionary history and they
and theoretical foundations behind Gowlett’s work were present in earlier Homo.
remained the same, although many were progressively
developed through the 1990s. He argued that modern humans conceptualise the
external world through the creation of internal mental
The main themes, as I see them for the late 80’s to the visualisations, images in the mind’s eye. In modern
early 2000s, are as follows. terminology - we construct an internalised mental
model of external reality (Gowlett 1982; Gowlett 1984;
• Elucidating the procedural templates / rule Gowlett 1986). Hominins possessed the same capacity
sets behind handaxe production and handaxe and it was demonstrable through material culture. The
assemblages. This continues the focus on process of making Oldowan core tools and Acheulean
variability and cognitive evolution, as well handaxes showed that hominins possessed different
as addressing questions about the way the templates (mental models) for both procedure (process
human mind worked. However, concerns with of making) and form (final product). These models were
demonstrating the deep roots of human thought unitary – one internal visualisation for one aspect of the
processes were less visible. outside world. These unitary representations were then
• A stronger interest in the relationship between chained together to form the procedural templates
culture and cognition – with cognitive themselves, and were embedded in a visualisation of
development providing the bridge between the final tool – the form template. So the stone tools of
biological and cultural evolution. early Homo were proof positive of the ancient roots of
• As the Developed Oldowan / Acheulean debate modern human thought processes.
faded, Gowlett championed the continued study
of stone tools and their spatio-temporal context. The psychosocial link to culture was that these
This was in the face of strong epistemological unitary internal visualisations were ideas, but they
challenges to the information potential inherent were generated and learnt in a social context, as was
in Palaeolithic artefacts. Isaac’s own students the construction and maintenance of the various
were arguing that the tool types of the older procedural and form templates.
typologies were not genuine design norms, while
others advocated the position that shaped tools Without these unitary internal models the ability to
were actually just cores; functional arguments make tools would not exist. These templates or routines
had challenged cultural interpretations of guided and informed the knapper’s actions (Gowlett
variability, and the concept of a ‘finished 1982). However, Gowlett was also clear that the stages of
artefact’ was under the microscope of critique. tool production had to be embedded within (evolving)
• Although allometry (adjustments to shape with concepts of space and time (Gowlett 1984), as these too
changes in size) was a technique for engaging were key features in the way modern people thought. So
with some of the above themes, it was also here, procedural templates were embedded in forward
a reflection of the increasing sophistication planning, anticipation of need, resource procurement
(maturity?) with which these research questions and the distribution of activity across landscapes.
were being interrogated as the Millennium
approached. Gowlett was an early enthusiast of A key early insight of Gowlett’s into cognitive evolution
the use of complex multivariate analysis. was the recognition of the degree to which the different
stages within the procedural template were integrated
Deep roots to the human way of thinking with each other (Gowlett 1986). One of the defining
traits of the psychosocial sector was management
As noted, the research questions of the post-Millennium of complexity. It was the level at which this occurred
Social Brain project were already being addressed by that really characterised hominins and humans. This
Gowlett from the late 1970s onwards. He was responding was clearly emphasised by the differences between

2
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 John McNabb: A Good Man in Africa

ourselves and our nearest cousins in nature, the apes time and space actually meant, were major elements
(another recurrent theme of Gowlett’s (Gowlett 1986; in Gowlett’s thinking for the simple reason that they
Gowlett 1993)). Our extant relatives show occasional informed so many other aspects of our understanding
glimpses of these traits. They make tools, they curate of the deep past. An upper horizon at Kilombe, post-
anvils, and modify sticks to make termite fishing tools, dating the main Acheulean floor at locality EH,
all of which suggests that they have procedural and revealed a flake assemblage associated with a palaeosol,
form templates of their own. However, they do not prompting the possibility of a non-handaxe Acheulean
possess the complexity in manipulating and integrating facies, accompanied by all the definitional chaos that
the elaborate procedural templates that we and our that concept entailed (Gowlett 1978; Harris, et al. 1981).
Acheulean and Oldowan making ancestors share. On two occasions Gowlett predicted the Lomekwian
Knapping an Oldowan tool shares basic procedural and (Gowlett 1986; Gowlett 1996b) as an earlier facies of the
form templates with a chimp’s termite fishing stick, but Oldowan.
the utility of the comparison stops there. Integration of
the templates is what makes hominins different. This is Mary Leakey (Leakey 1971) had interpreted Oldupai
evident in the following quotation. Gorge in terms of the monolithic conception of culture
that she had grown up with in the 1930s (de la Torre and
‘We have seen that early human beings, over a Mora 2014). Artefacts were realisations of specific design
million years ago, had minds that could handle forms, and consequently culture had a somewhat fixed
extents of time and space, much as we can, and and invariant character. Almost by definition significant
construct long chains of activity through them, variability in assemblage composition would imply
using set routines, but able to rewrite these flexibly different cultures or industrial traditions. Glyn Isaac
in detail.’ (Gowlett 1984, 214) had challenged this (Crompton and Gowlett 1993; Isaac
1972), arguing that there was considerable handaxe
Complexity in one area of hominin behaviour bespoke the variability in the supposedly broadly contemporary
potential for complexity in other areas too. Fire making localities revealed in his Olorgesailie excavations
(Gowlett, et al. 1981; Harris, et al. 1981) and the skilful (Isaac 1977). Earlier, Isimila had also raised the spectre
butchery of animal tissue (Gowlett 1984), even the very of spatial variability across contemporary localities
fact of the imposition of arbitrary form (Holloway 1969) (Howell 1961; Howell, et al. 1962). The Developed
on the world (Acheulean handaxes and cleavers, discoids Oldowan (DO) vs Acheulean debate encapsulated the
from Oldupai’s site DK; i.e. form templates): all of these problems that emerged when an overlap in tool types
provide evidence of the complex integration of elaborate was present in a rigidly imposed cultural framework.
internalised mental visualisations of the external world. Following Maxine Kleindienst’s scheme (Kleindienst
1962), Mary Leakey had allowed for a small number of
Across the second decade of Gowlett’s research career handaxes (albeit smaller and cruder than Acheulean
this emphasis on the deep roots of cognition receded. This ones) in the DO.
is curious as the context of Gowlett’s polemic, the belief
that advanced cognition was restricted only to modern From the outset, Gowlett eschewed a typological and
humans, had crystalized into a formal and popular theory even a technological definition of a handaxe, preferring
- the Human / Upper Palaeolithic Revolution (Mellars instead a psychosocial narrative. It is the long axis of
and Stringer 1989) in the late 1980s. Nevertheless, the the tool (point to base) that is the key to differentiating
psychosocial element and the notion of the procedural the Acheulean handaxe, with both bifacial flaking and
templates continued to inform Gowlett’s ideas (Gowlett bilateral symmetry arranged laterally in respect of
1984; Gowlett 1995a; Gowlett 1995b). Responding to the long axis. Whether the concept of the axis came
the challenges of Nick Toth’s work (Toth 1985) which first, and then big flakes were made to accommodate
argued that the shapes of Oldowan cores were fortuitous, this, or it was the other way around was not clear.
Gowlett asserted that even if this was the case, they were The reason for distancing the understanding of these
still knapped to a complex procedural template (termed large cutting tools from a typo-technological one was
instruction sets by the mid-90s) which structured them the very evident presence of bifacial flaking on cores
from acquisition of the cobble to use of the flake as a tool (and handaxes) in the DO, and Leakey’s acceptance of
(Gowlett 1995a). a small handaxe component to the DO. Gowlett’s 1979
paper on the DO/Acheulean debate, Complexities of
Explaining variability – taxonomies and spatio- Cultural Evidence (Gowlett 1979a), offered no solution to
temporal patterning – the Developed Oldowan/ the question but noted how variability in terminology,
Acheulean debate definition and artefact taxonomy, and even in the
theory and practice of sampling at inter- and intra-site
From the initial publication of Kilombe (Gowlett 1978) levels made answering the question of whether the DO
questions concerning assemblage composition, artefact and Acheulean were culturally distinct phenomena, or
taxonomy and what the variability sampled across activity variants within the same tradition, impossible.

3
Landscapes of Human Evolution

(The philosophy and practice of sampling threads its Gowlett 1986) already described. Gowlett had always
way through many of Gowlett’s papers in the 1980s been a little uncomfortable with the label ‘procedural
although I will not delve any deeper into them here.) template’ believing it to be too rigid, and open to
misinterpretation. From the start of the new decade
The topic was back on the menu in 1986 and 1988 he began to reformulate the terminology and its
but with more sophisticated analytical procedures; implications, preferring to see them as sets of shared
multivariate statistical techniques in the form of instructions or ‘reference routines’ held in the brain
principle components analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (Gowlett 1990). This had coalesced into ‘instruction sets’
(CA). This was also the time that acronyms became by the middle of the decade (Gowlett 1996b), with the
more noticeable in archaeology. Using the frequency old form template now subsumed within the concept.
of occurrence of different tool types (assemblage
composition) across a range of Acheulean and DO sites, The psychosocial element of ideas being culturally
Gowlett demonstrated that there was a real difference learnt and passed on remained implicit in this.
between the Oldupai Gorge DO sites when compared
to Acheulean sites from elsewhere in Eastern Africa The presence of standardization in handaxe making
(Gowlett 1986). As well as frequency differences, the - as an indicator of the existence of instruction sets -
PCA & CA showed that there was a decrease in the use had been a theme of Gowlett’s work on the Kilombe
of core tools at DO sites over time. However, a particular handaxes from early in the 80s. He identified a
type of CA conducted on measured data demonstrated consistently reoccurring handaxe width/length ratio of
the presence of two sub-groups of LCTs at Kilombe c. 0.6 from all the different contemporary areas on the
(Gowlett 1982; Gowlett 1986), one with large handaxes Kilombe land surface. He argued this recurrent pattern
more classically Acheulean, the other with smaller was a deliberately imposed design feature – part of an
handaxes which on examination were often cruder instruction set, and akin to the ‘golden ratio’ of artists
in finish – more akin to those of the DO at Oldupai. and architects (Gowlett 1982). It indicated the dawning
Gowlett’s interpretation was typical, arguing in favour of a sense of proportion in hominin psychology, another
of a more nuanced approach suggested by both sets of instruction set and a further insight into the origins of
results (Gowlett 1988). At Oldupai the DO/Acheulean the modern human thought process.
distinction was real (whatever its explanation), but at
Kilombe the distinction was in all likelihood functional Gowlett was joined by his Liverpool colleague Robin
because the two handaxe variants occurred on a single Crompton in the early 1990s to conduct an allometric
contemporary land surface. He speculated that It might analysis of the Kilombe bifaces (Crompton and Gowlett
be possible to trace a development from the shorter 1993). Allometry added to the list of instruction
Oldowan discoid, through the short-ish DO biface, sets that could be identified in handaxe making and
to the elongated axis and bilateral symmetry of the provided independent proof of their validity. The
handaxe proper. concept originates in biology (Crompton is a specialist
in bipedalism). When the physical size of an organism
The DO/Acheulean debate did not continue into the changes, and all aspects of the organism change in
1990s as other non-cultural research questions took direct proportion, this is akin to geometric scaling and
centre stage. In some respects the DO vs Acheulean the organism and its various component parts are said
debate was a ripple from earlier debates on culture to be in isometry. However when size changes but some
vs function from other areas of Prehistory, debates elements do not scale appropriately (i.e. they are bigger
that by the 1980s had already been played out, or or smaller than they should be) then this is allometric
had just ground to a halt. Nevertheless, it was a valid scaling. The size of the human brain may be thought of
exercise in the epistemology of how archaeologists as allometrically scaled as it is far larger than it should
quantify, describe and analyse variability in stone tool be for a mammal of our average body size.
assemblages.
The presence of allometric scaling at Kilombe
Explaining variability – taxonomies and spatio- (Crompton and Gowlett 1993) demonstrated that the
temporal patterning in handaxe manufacture – handaxe knappers did not share a single common
allometry handaxe template or design norm which they imposed
on every handaxe. This in itself this was a significant
On the other hand the question of artefact variability observation for cultural interpretations. Rather,
as revealed by the size distinctions in the Kilombe allometric differences in various measured features of
handaxes did persist into the 90s. The implications of handaxes (width of the tip, thickness of the base etc.)
a series of allometric studies (size-related variation were imposed by the knappers as size changed. The two
in shape) on handaxes from Kariandusi, Kilombe basic groups of handaxes, large and small, identified
and elsewhere unexpectedly exposed some of the in the earlier analysis, were confirmed in this new
procedural templates (Gowlett 1982; Gowlett 1984; research. Even if no site-wide handaxe template existed,

4
 John McNabb: A Good Man in Africa

what was clear was that allometric adjustments to similar to those in East Africa were found in the
handaxe shape and thickness were applied in a similar handaxes of the Acheulean Casablanca sequence in
way across the site. So the knappers in different parts of Morocco (Crompton and Gowlett 1997). The Casablanca
the site were responding in the same ways to changes in sites showed Homo erectus (STIC quarry possibly similar
handaxe size, making some aspects of the axes thinner in age to Kilombe and Kariandusi) adapting to size
and others narrower as size altered. In particular, the changes as they did in East Africa; a later Casablanca
larger handaxes tended to be thinner and the tips handaxe site (Cunette) continued this pattern. Heading
were always thinner than isometry would require; the southwards, allometry was clearly at work in the
larger specimens were narrower in plan at the tip; and handaxes of the Zambian site Kalambo Falls (Gowlett, et
the most isometrically stable part of the handaxe was al. 2001). Here allometric analysis was able to confirm
always the base probably because it was the handle for the old typological distinction between handaxes and
use. So even if there was no one culturally generated the bigger picks of the Sangoan, showing that these
signature handaxe type at the site, there were remained deliberately thicker and heavier. This may
commonly shared understandings (instruction sets) of have been related to function and the way they were
how to adjust shape when size changed. But there were held – two handed with the extra weight for increased
important differences too. One locality at Kilombe, Z, power.
had LCTs that were significantly thicker than isometry
predicted. Why was allometry important to John Gowlett? In a
decade when form templates were out of fashion and
The explanation of these various allometric changes tools as finished forms were a ‘fallacy’, it was hard to
was cautiously accepted as functional. convince people that stone tools were a worthwhile
pursuit. Allometry provided an objective answer, one
The following year allometry was applied to Kariandusi that was independent of typology, and squarely rooted
(Gowlett and Crompton 1994). Its assemblages were in in the psychosocial. Allometric changes were knappers
secondary context, but unlikely to have been moved far. adjusting their instruction sets (or perhaps accessing
Both levels of the site were dated to a similar time range sub-sets) to ensure that what they made was still a viable
to Kilombe, c. 0.7 – 1.0 mya. A series of obsidian bifaces tool. Allometry proved the existence of instruction sets,
from Louis Leakey’s upper site were compared with and showed that lithic analysis could contribute to the
lava examples from the excavated lower site recovered new research agendas emerging in the 1990s. I suspect
by Gowlett. These data sets were then compared there was also a pleasing ‘human’ element here too. We
with Kilombe and with lava LCTs from the Kapthurin can empathise with an Erectine knapper more than a
Formation, also in Kenya. This latter site dated to about million years ago that has to make allowances to keep
0.5-0.4 kya and its LCTs were made on Levallois blanks. edges sharp and tips thinner, at the same time as trying
There were some strong similarities between the LCTs to keep the handaxe’s butt big enough to hold on to.
from all three sites, despite the fact that Kapthurin post-
dated the other two by many hundreds of thousands Individuals, their societies and their psychosocial
of years. Intriguingly the obsidian artefacts from worlds
Kariandusi upper site were allometrically similar in
many respects to the Kapthurin lava axes. The lava axes I will finish this rather personal overview of selected
from Kariandusi lower also showed some similarities aspects of Gowlett’s earlier work by looking a little
but were markedly more asymmetric with thinner at the glue that held it all together – the relationship
tips, these being interpreted as two allometric changes between culture and the psychosocial. During the 1990s
in the procedural templates for handaxes in that Palaeolithic archaeology saw the acceleration of two sub-
assemblage. The Kariandusi lava axes were noted for disciplines within the field of human origins research,
their butt size - another example of allometric scaling, cognitive evolution and hominin social archaeology.
in this case specific to the knappers of that assemblage. At the risk of generalising, culture had been out of
Once more function was seen as potentially a driver for fashion across the 1980s (Gowlett 1990) and hominin
these allometric differences. ‘behavioural’ interpretations had taken its place. The
broad umbrella of behaviour could be broken down into
In summing up Gowlett and Crompton noted that across specific sub-sets of behaviours and empirically tested.
the East African Acheulean (at least for their data) The concept of behaviours had a more scientific and
allometry was a significant factor in LCT production, contemporary feel to it. Behavioural studies offered
and across a significant time depth. This meant that the chance to promote single causes for later social
Homo erectus at Kariandusi and Kilombe, and early Homo patterns (Gowlett 1984) – food sharing for Glyn Isaac,
sapiens (now more likely African Homo heidelbergensis) or the hunting hypothesis for other researchers. Single
at Kapthurin, were applying similar rule sets to their behavioural solutions had a simplicity to them, and
material culture in similar ways. The pervasiveness of they were more amenable to empirical testing than
the pattern was proved when allometric adjustments ‘culture’. While acknowledging the importance of these

5
Landscapes of Human Evolution

questions Gowlett kicked back against the trend for Going out on a limb, I suggest that Gowlett eschewed
downgrading the importance of culture as a concept, if behavioural archaeologies in favour of more
for no other reason than that stone tools were cultural psychosocially orientated ones because for him these
artefacts, and allometry was proving their worth in the were synonymous with culture. This was implicit in
emerging studies of cognitive evolution. his 1984 Mental Abilities of Early Man paper; culture was
an integral part of biology and the mind mediated
From almost the beginning of his research output between the two (Gowlett 1984). Evolution in one meant
Gowlett had combined Julian Huxley’s notion of the evolution in the other, and so evolution of the mind that
psychosocial (Huxley 1955) with Ralph Holloway’s linked them. It was through the internalised mental
insight that culture reflected an ‘imposition of arbitrary models that this was achieved. They were adaptive.
form’ on the natural world (Holloway 1969). These are Increase the effectiveness of internal representations
frequent references in Gowlett’s papers of the 1980s and the effectiveness of instruction sets in the outside
and 1990s. ‘Form’ did not just mean modifying elements world increased. This enhanced the inclusive fitness
of the natural world to make material culture, it also of an organism as it made it better equipped to be
meant imposing ideas on lives lived in the outside successful in demanding environments. This was
world to structure the actions carried out by those lives clearly reiterated in his 1995 paper Psychological Worlds
- culture or sociality in our terms. ‘Arbitrary’, in this Within and Without (Gowlett 1995b). Gowlett also added
sense, meant imposing something that was not ‘known an evaluative element to this, mentalising future
in nature’ (Gowlett 1995a) i.e. not present in the outside possibilities:
world – so it originated within the mind.
‘To experiment in the head is cheaper than to
A quotation will suffice to make this point. experiment in actuality.’ (Gowlett 1995b, 37)

‘Further insights come from Julian Huxley’s And more specifically,

view that cultural development represents a
fundamental change of evolutionary level, from ‘Efficiency can only be ensured through mental
ordinary biological evolution to psychosocial simulation – that is a planning of activities in which
evolution, in which change can happen much more alternatives can be evaluated, and discarded if
rapidly and in which, ideally, it can be guided by found wanting.’ (Gowlett 1995b, 38)
the species concerned. In this sense, culture, as a
concept, embodies not just material objects but all In this sense Gowlett effectively tied culture and biology
the abstracted rule systems …[Holloway’s imposed together through selection pressures on cognition.
arbitrary form]…by which human beings operate,
and which are handed down from individual to Paraphrasing Gowlett’s (1990) interpretation, Julian
individual. It has become widely accepted that in Huxley (1955) characterised evolutionary biology by an
such a system, biological evolution and cultural ‘interlocking trinity of subject matter’:
evolution affect one another in a positive feedback
relationship, thus providing both change and • The mechanisms of maintaining existence
its cause. This view has never been effectively • The basis of reproduction and variation
challenged…’ (Gowlett 1984, 202; my square • The modes of evolutionary transformation
brackets).
Gowlett (ibid, 90) argued that modern culture need
I sense a strong gene-culture co-evolution element not reflect each of these individually (Julian Huxley’s
to Gowlett’s theory building in these years (Gowlett paper was on the relationship between culture and
1984; Gowlett 1986; Gowlett 1990; Gowlett 1996b), and biology, and was the T.H. Huxley memorial lecture for
it is interesting that in his Mental Abilities of Early Homo 1955), but it nevertheless achieves the same result as
paper in 1996 he explicitly rejects such a link (p193), but they do, although I suspect the modern gene-culture
the rejection is more about that stripe of co-evolution co-evolutionists would have little trouble in tying these
promoted by E.O Wilson in his now renowned (or biological principles directly to cultural activities.
infamous) Sociobiology book (1975). My gut feeling is
that Gowlett’s early writings are more in line with the ‘…my conclusion is that at its most basic the
modern gene-culture co-evolution of Joseph Henrich cultural system is an adjunct system of living, set
(Henrich 2016), or perhaps more specifically with up through process that are genetically controlled,
Cecilia Heyes (Heyes 2018) since she and Gowlett both and dependent for its operation on brain store,
place social learning at the very heart of the socio- brain process, and coded electrical signals. This
cognitive relationship (Gowlett 1984, 1986; see below). reduction does little to reach towards the higher

6
 John McNabb: A Good Man in Africa

levels of mind, but it does suggest the possibility References

of analysing objectively the information content of
ancient technology.’ (Gowlett 1990, 90) Crompton, R.H., Gowlett, J.A.J. 1993. Allometry and
multidimensional form in Acheulean bifaces from
This ‘objective analysis’ is made possible because Kilombe, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 25:175 -
the reductionist view of culture sees it as a way of 199.
storing, processing and transferring information. The Crompton, R.H., Gowlett, J.A.J. 1997. The Acheulean and
information is located in the brain, which as it evolves the Sahara: Comparisons between North and East
(i.e. more effective mental models and improved African Sites. In: Sinclair, A., Slater, E., Gowlett, J.A.J.,
instruction sets which are culturally learned), is able editors. Archaeological Sciences 1995. Proceedings of a
to process and store ever more information and to Conference on the Application of Scientific Techniques to
transfer it to subsequent generations through learning the Study of Archaeology. Oxford: Oxbow Monograph
(imposed arbitrary form is the channel through which 64, Oxbow Books. p 400-405.
processing is made relevant, and transfer is facilitated). de la Torre, I., Mora, R. 2014. The Transition to the
Hence the evolving mind is the mediator of culture and Acheulean in East Africa: an Assessment of Paradigms
biology (ibid 1990). and Evidence from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). Journal
of Archaeological Method and Theory 214:781-823.
It is interesting to note, in concluding, that sociality Gowlett, J.A.J. 1978. Kilombe - An Acheulean Site
and the individual did not really come to prominence in Complex in Kenya. In: Bishop, W.W., editor. Geological
Gowlett’s work before the mid-1990s. Both I think were Background to Fossil Man. Edinburgh: Scottish
implicit in his thinking but they had not been formally Academic Press. p 337-360.
expressed as such. Both of course were key elements Gowlett, J.A.J. 1979a. Complexities of cultural evidence
in the Social Brain project. They were inherent to the in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene. Nature 278:14
concept of the psychosocial and cultural learning; - 17.
allometry allowed the individual to be recognised as Gowlett, J.A.J. 1979b. A Contribution to Studies of the
a thinking actor. Of the papers I have had access to, Acheulean in East Africa with Especial Reference to
the individual is only acknowledged as such from 1996 Kilombe and Kariandusi. University of Cambridge:
onwards (Gowlett 1996b); and sociality as a structuring Unpublished Ph.D.
factor also occurs first in the same year (Gowlett 1996a). Gowlett, J.A.J. 1982. Procedure and Form in a Lower
It is therefore perhaps not so surprising to discover that Palaeolithic Industry: Stoneworking at Kilombe,
the year before, Gowlett actually anticipated sociality Kenya. Studia Praehistorica Belgica 2:101-109.
as the key driver for brain expansion, what would Gowlett, J.A.J. 1984. Mental Abilities of Early Man.
become the core theory of the Social Brain, Culture Education and Society 38:199-220.
Gowlett, J.A.J. 1986. Culture and Conceptualisation:
‘How then can we justify the very expensive human the Oldowan-Acheulean Gradient. In: Bailey, G.N.,
brain, that uses so much energy? I can think of two Callow, P., editors. Stone Age Prehistory. Studies in
solutions: Memory of Charles McBurney. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p 243-260.
1. That it is necessitated by an environment which Gowlett, J.A.J. 1988. A case of Developed Oldowan in the
is largely the human social environment – no Acheulean? World Archaeology 20:13 - 26.
other animal has this…’ (Gowlett 1995b, 37) Gowlett, J.A.J. 1990. Technology, Skill, and the
Psychosocial Sector in the Long Term of Human
The second reason was that the brain payed for itself Evolution. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 9:82-
with ever more effective mental models. 103.
Gowlett, J.A.J. 1993. Chimpanzees Deserve More
In his 1996 Mental Abilities of Early Homo paper Gowlett than Crumbs of the Palaeoanthropological Cake.
presented the concept of the personal pointer (1996a), Cambridge Archaeological Journal 3:297-300.
a zone of free-play (see also Isaac 1972), within which Gowlett, J.A.J. 1995a. A Matter of Form: Instruction Sets
an individual knapper could express themselves in and the Shaping of Early Technology. Lithics 16:2-16.
the handaxes they made without stepping outside of Gowlett, J.A.J. 1995b. Psychological Worlds Within and
their society’s understanding of what material culture Without: Human-Environment Relations in Early
was. He expressed it as the relationship between the Parts of the Palaeolithic. In: Ullrich, H., editor. Man
individual Acheulean knapper and the group. Twenty and Environment in the Palaeolithic. Liège: Etudes
three years after this was articulated, and nine years et Recherches de l’Université de Liège 62, Université de
after the Social Brain project ended, this remains one Liège. p 29-42.
of the highest research priorities in Lower and Middle Gowlett, J.A.J. 1996a. Chapter 5. The Frameworks
Pleistocene archaeology. of early Hominid Social Systems. How Many

7
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 Agriculture - Instructor Guide
Third 2021 - Research Center

Prepared by: Dr. Smith

Date: August 12, 2025

Quiz 1: Ethical considerations and implications

Learning Objective 1: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 5: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 6: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 9: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 2: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 11: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 15: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 19: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
References 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
Practice Problem 20: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 22: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 24: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice 4: Historical development and evolution
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 31: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 36: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 37: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 41: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 44: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 46: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 47: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 6: Research findings and conclusions
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 51: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 55: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 56: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 57: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 58: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 59: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 7: Fundamental concepts and principles
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 63: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 64: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 67: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 8: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 72: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 75: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 78: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 9: Case studies and real-world applications
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 83: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 84: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 85: Best practices and recommendations
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Section 10: Historical development and evolution
Practice Problem 90: Best practices and recommendations
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 91: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 11: Critical analysis and evaluation
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 101: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 104: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 105: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 105: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 107: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 109: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 12: Critical analysis and evaluation
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 112: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 113: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 114: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 115: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 117: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 118: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 13: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 14: Ethical considerations and implications
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 133: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 134: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 136: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 136: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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